Showing papers on "Job attitude published in 2010"
TL;DR: In this paper, a study of 245 firefighters and their supervisors found that engagement mediates relationships between value congruence, perceived organizational support, and core self-evaluations, and two job performance dimensions: task performance and organizational citizenship behavior.
Abstract: We theorize that engagement, conceptualized as the investment of an individual’s complete self into a role, provides a more comprehensive explanation of relationships with performance than do well-known concepts that reflect narrower aspects of the individual’s self. Results of a study of 245 firefighters and their supervisors supported our hypotheses that engagement mediates relationships between value congruence, perceived organizational support, and core self-evaluations, and two job performance dimensions: task performance and organizational citizenship behavior. Job involvement, job satisfaction, and intrinsic motivation were included as mediators but did not exceed engagement in explaining relationships among the antecedents and performance outcomes.
2,837 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, a study among 54 Dutch teachers tested a model of weekly work engagement and found that momentary work engagement has a positive, lagged effect on next week's job resources.
Abstract: This study among 54 Dutch teachers tested a model of weekly work engagement. On the basis of theories about the motivational potential of job resources, we predicted that teachers' weekly job resources are positively related to their week-levels of work engagement, and that week-level work engagement is predictive of week-level performance. In addition, we hypothesized that momentary work engagement has a positive, lagged effect on next week's job resources. Teachers were asked to fill in a weekly questionnaire every Friday during 5 consecutive weeks. Results of multi-level analyses largely confirmed our hypotheses, by showing that week-levels of autonomy, exchange with the supervisor, and opportunities for development (but not social support) were positively related to weekly engagement, which, in turn, was positively related to weekly job performance. Moreover, momentary work engagement was positively related to job resources in the subsequent week. These findings show how intra-individual variability in employees' experiences at work can explain weekly job performance.
961 citations
Journal Article•
TL;DR: In this article, a literature study was conducted in which the focus was first on proactive behaviour of the employee and then on job crafting, which can be seen as a specific form of proactive behaviour in which an employee initiates changes in the level of job demands and job resources.
Abstract: Orientation: For a long time, employees have been viewed as passive performers of their assigned job tasks. Recently, several scholars have argued that job design theory needs to address the influence of employees on their job designs.
Research purpose: The purpose of the study was to fit job crafting in job design theory.
Motivation for the study: The study was an attempt to shed more light on the types of proactive behaviours of individual employees at work. Moreover, we explored the concept of job crafting and its antecedents and consequences.
Research design, approach and method: A literature study was conducted in which the focus was first on proactive behaviour of the employee and then on job crafting.
Main findings: Job crafting can be seen as a specific form of proactive behaviour in which the employee initiates changes in the level of job demands and job resources. Job crafting may be facilitated by job and individual characteristics and may enable employees to fit their jobs to their personal knowledge, skills and abilities on the one hand and to their preferences and needs on the other hand.
Practical/managerial implications: Job crafting may be a good way for employees to improve their work motivation and other positive work outcomes. Employees could be encouraged to exert more influence on their job characteristics.
Contribution/value-add: This article describes a relatively new perspective on active job redesign by the individual, called job crafting, which has important implications for job design theories.
778 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, a literature study was conducted in which the focus was first on proactive behaviour of the employee and then on job crafting, which can be seen as a specific form of proactive behaviour in which an employee initiates changes in the level of job demands and job resources.
Abstract: Orientation: For a long time, employees have been viewed as passive performers of their assigned job tasks. Recently, several scholars have argued that job design theory needs to address the influence of employees on their job designs. Research purpose: The purpose of the study was to fit job crafting in job design theory. Motivation for the study: The study was an attempt to shed more light on the types of proactive behaviours of individual employees at work. Moreover, we explored the concept of job crafting and its antecedents and consequences. Research design, approach and method: A literature study was conducted in which the focus was first on proactive behaviour of the employee and then on job crafting. Main findings: Job crafting can be seen as a specific form of proactive behaviour in which the employee initiates changes in the level of job demands and job resources. Job crafting may be facilitated by job and individual characteristics and may enable employees to fit their jobs to their personal knowledge, skills and abilities on the one hand and to their preferences and needs on the other hand. Practical/managerial implications: Job crafting may be a good way for employees to improve their work motivation and other positive work outcomes. Employees could be encouraged to exert more influence on their job characteristics. Contribution/value-add: This article describes a relatively new perspective on active job redesign by the individual, called job crafting, which has important implications for job design theories.
753 citations
TL;DR: The authors quantitatively summarized the relationship between Five-Factor Model personality traits, job burnout dimensions (emotional exhaustion, depersonalization, and personal accomplishment), and absenteeism, turnover, and job performance.
719 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, a qualitative study of 33 employees in for-profit and non-profit organizations to elaborate theory on job crafting was conducted, focusing on how employees at different ranks describe perceiving and adapting to challenges in the execution of job crafting and their responses to them details the adaptive action that may be necessary for job crafting to occur.
Abstract: Summary We utilize a qualitative study of 33 employees in for-profit and non-profit organizations to elaborate theory on job crafting. We specifically focus on how employees at different ranks describe perceiving and adapting to challenges in the execution of job crafting. Elaborating the challenges employees perceive in job crafting and their responses to them details the adaptive action that may be necessary for job crafting to occur. Specifically, our findings suggest that higher-rank employees tend to see the challenges they face in job crafting as located in their own expectations of how they and others should spend their time, while lower-rank employees tend to see their challenges as located in their prescribed jobs and others’ expectations of them. The nature of each group’s perceived challenges is related to the adaptive moves that they make to overcome them, such that higher-rank employees adapt their own expectations and behaviors to make do with perceived opportunities to job craft at work, while lower-rank employees adapt others’ expectations and behaviors to create opportunities to job craft. Our elaborated theory presents a socially embedded account of job crafting as a proactive and adaptive process that is shaped by employees’ structural location in the organization. Copyright # 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
697 citations
TL;DR: In this article, the authors draw on the original job characteristics model (JCM) and on an elaborated model of work design to examine relationships between ethical leadership, task significance, job autonomy, effort, and job performance.
Abstract: Summary In the current study, we draw on the original job characteristics model (JCM) and on an elaborated model of work design to examine relationships between ethical leadership, task significance, job autonomy, effort, and job performance. We suggest that leaders with strong ethical commitments who regularly demonstrate ethically normative behavior can have an impacton the JCM elementsof tasksignificance and autonomy, thereby affecting anemployee’s motivation (willingness to exert effort), which in turn will be evidenced by indications of enhanced task performance and organizational citizenship behavior. We conducted a field study by surveying pairs of co-workers in a diverse set of organizations. Results provide support for a fully mediated model whereby task significance and effort fully mediate relationships between ethical leadership and subordinates’ job performance. Implications for future research on job design are discussed. Copyright # 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. At the heart of the job characteristics model (JCM, Hackman & Oldham, 1976) is the premise that leaders canshape intrinsic motivation bytheway inwhich theystructuretheobjectivecharacteristics of the work itself. 1 The theoretical model of job design was rooted in an examination of the ‘‘basic conditions that promote high performance motivation and satisfaction at work,’’ in order ‘‘to determine how those conditions can be created’’ (Hackman & Oldham, 1976; p. 71). We argue that the conceptual and empirical developments of the JCM to date can be expanded to encompass a broader role for leaders. In particular, we suggest that leaders with strong ethical commitments who regularly demonstrate ethically normative behavior can have an impact on the JCM elements of task significance and autonomy, thereby affecting an employee’s motivation (willingness to exert effort), which in turn will be evidenced by indications of enhanced task performance and organizational citizenship behaviors.
655 citations
TL;DR: The authors provided a comprehensive meta-analysis of the relationships of chronological age with the 35 job attitudes most frequently studied as its correlates, and found that the relationships between chronological age and favorable attitudes toward work tasks, colleagues and supervisors, and organizations are generally significant and weak to moderate in strength.
Abstract: Although organizational research on age has largely focused on the age–performance relationship, the relationships between age and job attitudes have received less attention. Guided by socioemotional selectivity theory, this paper provides a comprehensive meta-analysis of the relationships of chronological age with the 35 job attitudes most frequently studied as its correlates. Results of meta-analyses from more than 800 articles indicate that the relationships between chronological age and favorable attitudes (and/or to less unfavorable attitudes) toward work tasks, colleagues and supervisors, and organizations are generally significant and weak to moderate in strength. Moderator analyses also revealed that organizational tenure, race, gender, education level, and publication year of study moderate the relationships between age and job attitudes. Based on these findings, we make recommendations for future theory development and empirical research on age in organizational settings. We also discuss the implications of our findings for practice.
587 citations
TL;DR: This article used meta-analysis to estimate the population correlation between pay level and measures of pay and job satisfaction, finding that pay level was correlated.15 with job satisfaction and.23 with pay satisfaction.
544 citations
TL;DR: In this article, the authors integrate the differentiation between two types of job demands, as made in previous studies, in the Job-Demands Resources (JD-R) model, and examine empirically whether the differentiation, next to the category of job resources, accounts for the unexpected positive relationships between particular types of jobs demands (e.g., workload) and employees' work engagement.
Abstract: This study aimed to integrate the differentiation between two types of job demands, as made in previous studies, in the Job–Demands Resources (JD-R) model. Specifically, this study aimed to examine empirically whether the differentiation between job hindrances and job challenges, next to the category of job resources, accounts for the unexpected positive relationships between particular types of job demands (e.g., workload) and employees' work engagement. Results of confirmatory factor analyses supported the differentiation between the three categories of job characteristics in two samples (N 1 = 261 and N 2 = 441). Further, structural equation modelling confirmed the hypotheses that job hindrances associate positively with exhaustion (i.e., the main component of burnout) and negatively with vigour (i.e., the main component of work engagement). Job resources displayed the reversed pattern of relations. Job challenges were positively related to vigour. Rather unexpectedly, they were unrelated to exhaustion...
516 citations
TL;DR: In this article, a study among 12,359 employees working in 148 organizations tested the interaction hypothesis of the Job Demands-Resources (JD-R) model and found that employees endorse most positive work attitudes (task enjoyment and organizational commitment) when job demands and job resources are both high.
Abstract: This study among 12,359 employees working in 148 organizations tested the interaction hypothesis of the Job Demands-Resources (JD-R) model. Accordingly, employees endorse most positive work attitudes (task enjoyment and organizational commitment) when job demands and job resources are both high. Results of moderated structural equation modeling analyses provided strong support for the hypothesis: 15 of the 16 hypothesized interactions were significant for task enjoyment and 13 of the 16 interactions were significant for organizational commitment. Job resources (skill utilization, learning opportunities, autonomy, colleague support, leader support, performance feedback, participation in decision making, and career opportunities) predicted task enjoyment and organizational commitment particularly under conditions of high job demands (workload and emotional demands). These findings clearly expand the Demand-Control model and support the JD-R model. Moreover, the results illustrate what managers can do to secure employee well-being.
TL;DR: In this article, a meta-analysis examined the relationship between job satisfaction and subjective well-being (SWB) and found that the causal relationship from SWB to job satisfaction was stronger than the causal relation from job satisfaction to SWB.
Abstract: The current meta-analysis examined the relationship between job satisfaction and subjective well-being (SWB). Consistent with the spillover hypothesis, we found positive relationships between job satisfaction and life satisfaction, happiness, positive affect, and the absence of negative affect. In addition, an examination of longitudinal studies suggested that the causal relationship from SWB to job satisfaction was stronger than the causal relationship from job satisfaction to SWB.
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors examined the relationship between emotion-regulation ability (ERA), as assessed by the Mayer- Salovey- Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test (MSCEIT), and both job satisfaction and burnout among secondary-school teachers (N = 123).
Abstract: The topic of emotion regulation and its relationship with teacher effectiveness is beginning to garner attention by researchers. This study examined the relationship between emotion-regulation ability (ERA), as assessed by the Mayer – Salovey – Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test (MSCEIT), and both job satisfaction and burnout among secondary-school teachers (N = 123). It also examined the mediating effects of affect and principal support on these outcomes. ERA was associated positively with positive affect, principal support, job satisfaction, and one component of burnout, personal accomplishment. Two path models demonstrated that both positive affect and principal support mediated independently the associations between ERA and both personal accomplishment and job satisfaction. C � 2010 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
TL;DR: In this article, the authors contribute to the sparse empirical literature on generational differences at work by examining the effect of generation on work attitudes (e.g., job satisfaction, job security, and turnover intentions) and how Millennials’ work attitudes differ from prior generations.
Abstract: Purpose
The purpose of this study is to contribute to the sparse empirical literature on generational differences at work by examining (1) the effect of generation on work attitudes (e.g., job satisfaction, job security, and turnover intentions) and (2) how Millennials’ work attitudes differ from prior generations.
TL;DR: Based on a 12-month study of 2,794 employees in a telecommunications firm, it is found that ERP system implementation moderated the relationships between three job characteristics and job satisfaction.
Abstract: Little research has examined the impacts of enterprise resource planning (ERP) systems implementation on job satisfaction. Based on a 12-month study of 2,794 employees in a telecommunications firm, we found that ERP system implementation moderated the relationships between three job characteristics (skill variety, autonomy, and feedback) and job satisfaction. Our findings highlight the key role that ERP system implementation can have in altering well-established relationships in the context of technology-enabled organizational change situations. This work also extends research on technology diffusion by moving beyond a focus on technology-centric outcomes, such as system use, to understanding broader job outcomes.
TL;DR: This study proposes and tests a model relating job stress to four intentions to withdraw from practice mediated by job satisfaction and perceptions of physical and mental health.
Abstract: Health care organizations may incur high costs due to a stressed, dissatisfied physician workforce. This study proposes and tests a model relating job stress to four intentions to withdraw from practice mediated by job satisfaction and perceptions of physical and mental health.
01 Jan 2010
TL;DR: In this paper, the effects of job insecurity on four organizationally important outcomes: in-role behaviour, organizational citizenship behaviour, turnover intention, and absenteeism were investigated with a sample of 136 German non-managerial employees.
Abstract: This study investigates the effects of job insecurity on four organizationally important outcomes: in-role behaviour, organizational citizenship behaviour, turnover intention, and absenteeism. A model is tested in which job insecurity is simultaneously a hindrance and a challenge stressor. In particular, job insecurity is proposed to have a predominantly harmful effect on performance, turnover intention, and absenteeism, and it is argued that these effects are mediated by (reduced) work attitudes. In addition, job insecurity is also assumed to affect these behaviours in the opposite way (i.e. a suppressor effect) because job insecurity might motivate employees to make themselves more valuable to the organization by working harder and being less absent. The model is tested with a sample of 136 German non-managerial employees. Data from supervisors (i.e. in-role behaviour and organizational citizenship behaviour), the company's personnel files (i.e. absenteeism), and self-reports (i.e. job insecurity, work attitudes, turnover intention, in-role behaviour, and organizational citizenship behaviour) were used. Structural equation modelling showed that a model that included both negative and positive effects fitted the data best. The negative effect was stronger than the positive effect. The results show that the effects of job insecurity are more complex than previously assumed. In addition, the results also extend previous research into hindrance and challenge stressors because they show that stressors should not be categorized as either hindrance or challenge. Instead, it might be more appropriate to conceptualize hindrance and challenge as two dimensions.
TL;DR: In an era in which rising costs, shrinking budgets, and personnel shortages are common, it is increasingly important to provide a positive work situation to ensure worker stability as discussed by the authors, and this is the goal of our work.
Abstract: In an era in which rising costs, shrinking budgets, and personnel shortages are common, it is increasingly important to provide a positive work situation to ensure worker stability. Research indica...
TL;DR: In this paper, the antecedents (i.e., role ambiguity and conflict, burnout, socialization, and work autonomy) and consequences (e.g., affective and continuance commitment, absenteeism, and employee turnover intention) of employee job satisfaction were investigated.
TL;DR: This article examined how teachers' collective efficacy, job stress, and the cultural dimension of collectivism are associated with job satisfaction for 500 teachers from Canada, Korea (South Korea or Republic of Korea), and the United States.
Abstract: This study examines how teachers’ collective efficacy (TCE), job stress, and the cultural dimension of collectivism are associated with job satisfaction for 500 teachers from Canada, Korea (South Korea or Republic of Korea), and the United States. Multigroup path analysis revealed that TCE predicted job satisfaction across settings. Job stress was negatively related to job satisfaction for North American teachers (i.e., teachers from Canada and the United States), whereas the cultural dimension of collectivism was significantly related to job satisfaction for the Korean, but not for North American teachers. For motivation theorists, the results from this study provide evidence that cultural context influences how motivation beliefs are understood and expressed in diverse settings. For educators, this study underlines the importance of collective motivation as a source of individual job satisfaction.
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors identify the effects of job satisfaction on organizational commitment for managers in large-scale hotels in the Aegean region of Turkey and examine whether there is a significant relationship between the characteristics of the sample, organizational commitment, and job satisfaction.
Abstract: Purpose – The aim of this paper is to identify the effects of job satisfaction on organizational commitment for managers in large‐scale hotels in the Aegean region of Turkey and, in addition, to examine whether there is a significant relationship between the characteristics of the sample, organizational commitment, and job satisfaction.Design/methodology/approach – Two structured questionnaires were administered to large‐scale hotel managers in the tourism industry. The survey instruments were adopted from the validated Minnesota Job Satisfaction and Organizational Commitment Questionnaire of Meyer‐Allen. The data were analyzed using Statistical Package for Social Sciences version 13.0.Findings – The findings indicate that extrinsic, intrinsic, and general job satisfaction have a significant effect on normative commitment and affective commitment. In addition, the findings suggest that the dimensions of job satisfaction do not have a significant effect on continuance commitment among the managers of large...
TL;DR: In this article, the role of work-family enrichment in the relationship between organizational interventions for work-life balance and job outcomes was examined, and it was hypothesized that organizational intervention for worklife balance will be positively related to job outcomes and work to family enrichment will mediate these relationships.
Abstract: Purpose – This paper aims to examine the role of work‐family enrichment in the relationships between organizational interventions for work‐life balance (job characteristics, work‐life benefits and policies, supervisor support and work‐family culture) and job outcomes (job satisfaction, affective commitment and organizational citizenship behaviour). It is hypothesized that organizational interventions for work‐life balance will be positively related to job outcomes and work‐to‐family enrichment will mediate these relationships.Design/methodology/approach – Data were collected from 216 managerial employees through a structured questionnaire from four organizations in India representing manufacturing and information technology (IT) sectors. Analysis was done using multiple regressions.Findings – Job characteristics were positively related to all the measures of job outcomes. Supervisor support and work‐family culture were positively related to job satisfaction and affective commitment. No significant associa...
TL;DR: In this article, the impact of transformational and transactional leadership style on job success and career satisfaction has been investigated and the results of regression analysis show that job success is more dependent on Transformational and Transactional Leadership as compared to career satisfaction.
Abstract: Effective leadership always plays an important role in the growth and better performance of the organization. This research has been conducted to determine the impact of transformational and transactional leadership style on job success and career satisfaction. A total of 240 responses (n = 240) from various private organizations working in the capital city of Pakistan were collected using various measures of TLI Questionnaire along with items of job success and career satisfaction. Results showed positive trends of all variables. Transactional leadership is found significantly related to job success while transformational leadership and job success are found highly related with career satisfaction. The results of regression analysis show that job success is more dependent on transformational and transactional leadership as compared to career satisfaction. Managerial implications are presented based upon these results.
TL;DR: Investigation of relationships between environmental factors of odor, noise, light, and color and perceived stress, job satisfaction, and turnover intention found that nurses tend to overlook their physical environment and "do their job."
Abstract: Objective The purpose of this study was to investigate relationships between environmental factors of odor, noise, light, and color and perceived stress, job satisfaction, and turnover intention. Background The physical work environment may positively or negatively influence nurses' stress, and stress may negatively impact their job satisfaction and intention to change jobs. Methods The research questions were answered using a descriptive, correlational design. The sample (n = 116) consisted of medical-surgical nurses working in acute-care settings. A 36-item questionnaire addressed odor, noise, light, color, perceived stress, job satisfaction, and turnover intention. Results Significant relationships were found between noise and perceived stress, perceived stress and job satisfaction, job satisfaction and turnover intention, and perceived stress and turnover intention. Conclusions Nurses tend to overlook their physical environment and "do their job." Common environmental stressors in the work environment can be stressful to staff and influence job satisfaction and, ultimately, intention to change jobs. Mitigating or eliminating these environmental factors has the potential to improve staff satisfaction and retention. Stress influences nursing job satisfaction and, ultimately, intention to change jobs.
TL;DR: Investigating how medical and nursing staff of the Nicosia General Hospital is affected by specific motivation factors, and the association between job satisfaction and motivation found health care professionals tend to be motivated more by intrinsic factors, implying this should be a target for effective employee motivation.
Abstract: The objective of this study was to investigate how medical and nursing staff of the Nicosia General Hospital is affected by specific motivation factors, and the association between job satisfaction and motivation. Furthermore, to determine the motivational drive of socio-demographic and job related factors in terms of improving work performance. A previously developed and validated instrument addressing four work-related motivators (job attributes, remuneration, co-workers and achievements) was used. Two categories of health care professionals, medical doctors and dentists (N = 67) and nurses (N = 219) participated and motivation and job satisfaction was compared across socio-demographic and occupational variables. The survey revealed that achievements was ranked first among the four main motivators, followed by remuneration, co-workers and job attributes. The factor remuneration revealed statistically significant differences according to gender, and hospital sector, with female doctors and nurses and accident and emergency (A+E) outpatient doctors reporting greater mean scores (p 55 years of age reported higher job satisfaction when compared to the other groups. The results are in agreement with the literature which focuses attention to management approaches employing both monetary and non-monetary incentives to motivate health care professionals. Health care professionals tend to be motivated more by intrinsic factors, implying that this should be a target for effective employee motivation. Strategies based on the survey's results to enhance employee motivation are suggested.
TL;DR: This article examined the effects of job insecurity on three outcomes: job attitudes (satisfaction), work behaviors (organizational citizenship behavior and deviant behavior), and negative emotion (anger, disgust, and sadness).
Abstract: This research examines the effects of job insecurity on three outcomes: job attitudes (satisfaction), work behaviors (organizational citizenship behavior and deviant behavior), and negative emotion...
TL;DR: This paper investigated the relationships among job stressors, coping resources, and job stress data were collected from food service employees (n = 255) in the hotel and catering industry Hierarchical regression showed main significant effects of job demands and job control and three-way interactions on job stress.
TL;DR: In this paper, a daily survey over three weeks demonstrated vacillation in job seeker affect and, to a lesser extent, “reemployment efficacy.” Daily perceived job search progress was related to this vacillation.
Abstract: Guided by theory and research on self-regulation and goal pursuit, we offer a framework for studying the dynamics of unemployed individuals’ job search. A daily survey over three weeks demonstrated vacillation in job seeker affect and, to a lesser extent, “reemployment efficacy.” Daily perceived job search progress was related to this vacillation. Lower perceived progress on any given day was related to more effort the following day. The study provides insights into the daily dynamics of job search and elucidates the roles of search progress, affect, and three key moderators—financial hardship, employment commitment, and “action-state orientation”—in explaining these dynamics.
TL;DR: WFC, in health organizations, can contribute to a decrease of nurses' job satisfaction, and nursing management could achieve its aim of reducing WFC through the improvement of support from nurse coordinators, the specific organization of work models, ad hoc family-friendly policies and individual counselling programmes for nurses.
Abstract: cortese c.g., colombo l. & ghislieri c. (2010) Journal of Nursing Management18, 35–43
Determinants of nurses’ job satisfaction: the role of work–family conflict, job demand, emotional charge and social support
Aim The aim of the present study was to develop a research model explaining the causal relationship between certain antecedents (job and emotional charge, supportive management and colleagues), work–family conflict (WFC) and job satisfaction.
Background Many research projects in health organizations have highlighted the link between high WFC and lower levels of job satisfaction. The study of these variables is important in understanding the processes of professional nurse retention.
Method The survey was conducted using a questionnaire administered to 351 professional nurses working in a major North Italian hospital. The questionnaire measures six variables: WFC, job satisfaction, job demand, emotional charge, supportive management and supportive colleagues.
Results The data confirmed the connection between WFC and job satisfaction, and showed the importance of some WFC predictors, such as supportive management, emotional charge and job demand, not only for their connections with WFC but also for their direct associations with job satisfaction.
Conclusion WFC, in health organizations, can contribute to a decrease of nurses’ job satisfaction.
Implications for nursing management Nursing management could achieve its aim of reducing WFC through the improvement of support from nurse coordinators, the specific organization of work models, ad hoc family-friendly policies and individual counselling programmes for nurses.