Showing papers on "Job security published in 1997"

A test of job security's direct and mediated effects on withdrawal cognitions

Abstract: Two field studies were undertaken to investigate the nature of the relationships between job security, job satisfaction, organizational commitment, and withdrawal cognitions. Study 1 was conducted in an organization immediately following its acquisition by another company (N=137). Study 2 was conducted in an organization that had experienced a number of layoffs and expected more in the future (N=188). Covariance structure analysis was used to test for direct, complete mediating, and partial mediating effects. Study 2 was used to cross-validate the findings from study 1. Results from both studies provide strong support for the proposition that job satisfaction and organizational commitment mediate the effects of job security on withdrawal cognitions. The two studies diverge when explicating the nature of the relations between job security, satisfaction, and commitment. Study 1 suggests job satisfaction completely mediates the effects of job security on commitment. Study 2 suggests that both satisfaction and commitment mediate the relationship between job security and withdrawal cognitions. Contextual differences that may have contributed to these findings are discussed. © 1997 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

The Growth of Temporary Services Work

Abstract: The temporary help services industry, which provides client firms with workers on an as-needed basis, has expanded at a phenomenal rate over the last 20 years. Since 1972, the industry's employment has grown at an annual rate of over 11 percent, and its share of total U.S. employment has risen from under 0.3 percent in 1972 to more than 1.8 percent in 1995. The growth of the temporary services industry has fueled controversy. Some analysts fear that temporary workers may become locked into a labor market underclass, with low wages, no benefits, negligible job security, little training and no possibility for advancement. Others challenge such claims and point to efficiencies created by temporary employment relationships. This article will examine the growth of the temporary services industry and discuss the quality of temporary services jobs, how such jobs fit into workers' careers and some of the forces that may be driving the growth of temporary services work.

Job Stress, Satisfaction, and Mental Health: An Empirical Examination of Self-Employed and Non-Self-Employed Canadians

Abstract: This study examined the differences in work and nonwork experiences of self-employed and organizationally employed people (salaried employees). Approximately 16 percent of the full-time labor force in the U.S. and Canada is self-employed (Cohen 1996; Wiatrowski 1994). In present-day industrial societies, employment can be divided into two broad categories. The dominant type consists of jobs whose definitions are independent of job holders. Most of these jobs are embedded in hierarchies and are usually salaried jobs (Eden 1975). These jobs are characterized by a high degree of formalization and standardization, and the duties and rewards are generally predetermined. In terms of work role definition, an individual's personality, skills, and devotion can make only a modest difference (Lewin-Epstein and Yuchtman-Yaar 1991). The second category differs from the first in that the scope of the job and its pay-offs are largely determined by the efforts and the skill of the incumbent. These are typically the self-employed jobs which generally exist outside corporate and bureaucratic structures. Self-Employment The number of people who are self-employed, as well as the percentage of all workers who are self-employed, has continued to rise over the past several years in North America (Cohen 1996; Krahn 1991; Wiatrowski 1994). In addition, the number of women who are self-employed has risen steadily (Dallalfar 1994; Devine 1994). For example, in 1993, women made up about one third of the self-employed (Wiatrowski 1994). Self-employed individuals tend to be older than salaried employees - the median age for self-employed individuals is about 44 years as opposed to 37 years for salaried employees. In addition, the rate of self-employment (the number of self-employed divided by all workers) increases with age and is the highest for both men and women 65 years and older (Wiatrowski 1994). Also, self-employed individuals in general have higher formal education than salaried employees (Robinson 1995). The dominant attraction of self-employment appears to be the high degree of independence it allows - the freedom from constraints associated with employment in formal, bureaucratic organization (Chay 1993; Eden 1975; Ketz de Vries 1980; Yusuf 1995). In addition, a number of other positive features of self-employment are highlighted in the literature, including: freedom to make decisions about the business, accountability only to oneself, potential for greater financial rewards and prerequisites, the opportunity to face interesting challenges, escape from the subordinate employee position, relatively high job security, and a feeling of achievement and pride (Akande 1994; Begley and Boyd 1987; Rodgers and Rodgers 1989; Timmons 1978). However, the advantages of self-employment do not come without sacrifice. In many instances, work and its demands dominate the lives of the self-employed profoundly. A clean separation between work and nonwork is generally absent from the lives of the self-employed. A normal work day can be extended to 10 to 12 hours or even longer; and having a full weekend off (Saturday and Sunday) is often only possible in exceptional circumstances (Jamal and Badawi 1995b). Chronic uncertainty and a high rate of failure among small businesses put the self-employed in a state of constant struggle requiring high investment of their emotional and physical resources. Other concerns raised in the literature include personal sacrifices, the burden of responsibility, the dominance of professional life, and the loss of psychological well-being (Akande 1994; Boyd and Gumpert 1983; Boyd and Webb 1982; Loscocco and Leicht 1993). Self-Employed vs. Non-Self-Employed While there are several empirical studies highlighting the attributes and characteristics of small business managers and entrepreneurs (Begley and Boyd 1987; Devine 1994; Herron and Robinson 1993), there are only a few studies in existence which compare the self-employed with organizationally employed individuals with regard to several important outcome variables (Chay 1993; Eden 1975; Jamal and Badawi 1995a; Lewin-Epstein and Yuchtman-Yaar 1991; Naughton 1987; Rahim 1996). …

Perceptions of Economic Insecurity: Evidence from the Survey of Economic Expectations

Abstract: The Survey of Economic Expectations (SEE) is a new national survey initiated in an effort to learn how American perceive their near-term futures. This article uses SEE data on more than two thousand labor force participants interviewed in 1994 and 1995 to describe how American in the labor force perceive the risk of near-term economic misfortune. The authors measure economic insecurity through responses to questions eliciting subjective probabilities of three events in the year ahead : absence of health insurance, victimization by burglary and job loss. Respondents are willing to describe their expectations in probabilistic terms and they appear to do so in a meaningful way. Using the responses to classify individuals as relatively secure, relatively insecure, and highly insecure, they find that respondents with a high risk of one adverse outcome tend also to perceive high risks of the other outcomes. Males and females have similar risk perceptions, but there is substantial variation in perceptions by schooling and race. In particular, black males and males with no postsecondary schooling tend to perceive much greater insecurity than do others in the labor force. Expectations and realizations of health insurance coverage and of job loss tend to match up closely, but respondents substantially overpredict the risk of burglary

Job satisfaction and dissatisfaction in higher education

Abstract: Several articles have reported and discussed the job satisfaction and dissatisfaction of workers in miscellaneous organizations. However, very few empirically‐supported explanations have been given to explain job satisfaction or dissatisfaction. Probes into explanations for job satisfaction and dissatisfaction in higher education using content analytical methodologies. Finds that teaching and research‐related activities contribute significantly to both job satisfaction and dissatisfaction of university teachers. Finds also that several miscellaneous dimensions of the jobs of the workers, such as relative job security and changes in university funding mechanisms, contribute to satisfaction and dissatisfaction respectively. Discusses these findings in the light of the two‐factor theory and the situational occurrences theory of job satisfaction.

Moderating effects of work-based support on the relationship between job insecurity and its consequences.

Abstract: This study examined the moderating effects of work-based support (i.e. support provided by work colleagues and supervisor) on the relationship between job insecurity and (1) job dissatisfaction, and (2) non-compliant job behaviours. Data were collected through a questionnaire sent by post to MBA alumni of a large university in the USA (n = 306). The results of moderated regression analysis showed that supervisor support and work colleague support significantly moderated the relationship between job insecurity and the two outcomes examined. These findings suggest that support derived from others at the workplace can contribute significantly in buffering individuals against job dissatisfaction and non-compliant job behaviours when their job security is at stake. The processes through which work-based support operates in moderating the relationship between job insecurity and its outcomes are discussed.

Change in job conditions, change in psychological distress, and gender: a longitudinal study of dual‐earner couples

Abstract: Building on the Job-Strain Theory, we estimated three relationships in a random sample of 201 full-time employed men and women in dual-earner couples interviewed three times over a 2-year period. We first estimated the main effects relationships between change over time in employees' experiences of job demands and job control and change over time in psychological distress. Then we estimated the interaction effects relationship of change in job demands on the relationship between change in job control and change in distress. Finally, we estimated the interaction effects of gender on these relationships. Job control was disaggregated into two conceptually distinct job conditions: skill discretion and decision authority. Controlling for other potentially stressful job conditions such as pay adequacy, job security, and relations with supervisor, as well as trait anxiety (an indicator of negative affectivity), change over time in job demands and skill discretion, but not decision authority, was related to change over time in psychological distress. Equally, for full-time employed women and men in dual-earner couples, if concerns about having to do dull, monotonous work increase over time, distress increases; if concerns about having to work under pressure of time and conflicting demands increase over time, distress increases. Finally, neither average skill discretion nor change over time in skill discretion moderated the relationship between job demands and psychological distress. Thus, at every level of skill discretion, high job demands were related to high distress. © 1997 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Firm Size and Job Quality: A Survey of the Evidence from Germany?

Abstract: Small firms provide and create a large proportion of jobs in Germany Are these jobs worse than jobs in larger firms? The mosaic picture that emerges from a review of several recent empirical studies using German individual or firm level micro data shows that, all in all, wages are lower, non-wage incomes (fringes) are lower, job security is lower, work organisation is less rigid, institutionalized possibilities for workers' participation in decision making are weaker, and opportunities for skill enhancement are worse in small firms compared to large firms The weight of evidence, therefore, indicates that, on average, small firms offer worse jobs than large firms It is argued that there is no need for policy measures targeted to improve job quality in small firms, because higher incomes in large firms can in part be seen as compensating differentials for more rigid work organisation, and can follow from wage policies to reduce shirking and turnover that is more costly in large than in small firms Furthermore, a lower level of remuneration, less protection against dismissals, a lower level of workers' participation, and less opportunities for further training all contribute to lower costs in small firms that might be needed to compensate for size-related cost disadvantages compared to large firms Economic policy should concentrate on keeping barriers to entrepreneurs' entry to markets low to foster new firm formation and creative destruction

Management-labour relations in the new Chinese economy

Abstract: This article sets out to cast greater light on employment practices in an emerging ‘socialist market economy’. It is based on empirical research carried out in a range of Chinese enterprises, which are then examined in terms of their management-labour relations, employment practices and human resources. Although the ‘iron rice bowl’ system of job security and ‘cradle-to-grave’ welfare coverage found mainly in state-owned enterprises is now being phased out, the study concludes that the degree of overlap with Sino-foreign joint ventures which are often portrayed as more likely to implement labour market-driven practices, to be as yet only partial.

A model of the net effect of job loss on violence.

Abstract: The authors extend frustration-aggression theory to hypothesize that increasing frequency of layoffs has countervailing influences on violence depending on how many people lose jobs compared to how many fear job loss. The authors offer a model that estimates the net effect of these processes on the incidence of violence in a community. The model specifies a parabolic function in which small increases in layoffs are associated with increased incidence of violence, but large increases are associated with reduced incidence. The model was tested with time-series methods by using weekly data from San Francisco. The independent variable was initial claims for unemployment compensation; the dependent variable was civil commitments for behavior that is dangerous to others. The model fit the data for both men and women. Implications of the model for economic policy and the provision of preventive services are discussed.

Bargaining with Imperfect Information: A Study of Worker Perceptions of Legal Protection in an At-Will World

Abstract: This Article presents empirical evidence on an issue at the heart of the academic controversy over the at-will rule -- namely, whether employees have sufficient information to effectively negotiate issues of job security. Using a written survey to collect data from several hundred workers, the study documents a widespread misunderstanding of the basic default rule of employment at will. The results indicate that workers consistently overestimate their legal rights, with overwhelming majorities (as high as 89%) believing that they are legally protected against arbitrary and unjust discharges when in fact they can be dismissed at will. These findings directly contradict a crucial assumption made by Richard Epstein and other defenders of the at-will rule: the assumption that both employers and employees understand the grounds on which they contract. One of the chief virtues of the at-will rule, according to its defenders, is that it is merely a default rule; the parties remain free to contract around it. If, however, workers are unaware of the legal default rule, then their failure to contract for greater job security can no longer be presumed to represent their true preferences. The presence of a significant information failure of this sort casts doubt on the ability of workers to protect their interests, suggesting a breakdown in the bargaining process. Thus, these findings undermine the traditional economic argument that the market can be relied upon to produce an efficient outcome when it comes to job security terms.

Employability ‐ creating a contract of mutual investment

Abstract: Employability can be a new form of job security. It involves a new mutual psychological contract where employers provide self‐development for vulnerable employees (i.e. all employees) and employees take advantage of those opportunities. It is important that the self‐enhancement is in tune with business goals. There needs to be an ongoing dialogue about the present and future needs of the individual and the business. Individuals need to prioritize and set goals, manage change, present themselves well, network strategically, invest in continuous learning and work well in teams. Management needs to adopt a coaching style, using listening and motivation skills to facilitate good decision making by employees. All this requires a high level of understanding, a healthy life balance, and change resilience. Congruence is a key concept. When employees are seeking the same goals as the organization, both are likely to succeed.

Self-Employed Contractors and Job Satisfaction

Abstract: Many studies have found that the self-employed are more satisfied with their jobs than are wage and salary earners (for example, Duffy and Stevenson 1984; Hornaday and Vesper 1982; Katz 1993; Naughton 1987a, 1987b). However, all of this research has implicitly assumed that the self-employed are a homogeneous group. In reality, this is not the case the types of workers covered by the self-employed label include professional consultants, small family business owners, farmers, independent tradespersons, labor-only contractors, artists, and workers trying to make a living in self-employment who would otherwise be unemployed. We therefore might expect job satisfaction to vary markedly among different sub-groups of the self-employed. This article provides a partial test of this hypothesis. In particular, data from a survey of a representative sample of the Australian workforce are used to test for significant differences in reported job satisfaction between wage and salary earners, self-employed contractors, and other self-employed workers. The focus on self-employed contractors can be justified on at least two grounds. First, it is widely believed that the prevalence of self-employed contractors in the labor force in industrialized countries has increased markedly during the last decade or so (McGregor and Sproull 1991; Pfeffer and Baron 1988). While hard data with which to establish this proposition are not available, it is clear that in virtually all OECD (Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development) countries, employers are moving away from the traditional pattern of full-time, permanent, waged work and instead, in their search for increased flexibility, are offering individuals a wide variety of working arrangements. Although most obvious here are permanent part-time work and temporary employment, contract employment is generally thought to have risen also in response to the same sorts of demands (Belous 1989; BAchtemann and Quack 1989; Davis-Blake and Uzzi 1993; McGregor and Sproull 1991). Second, it is often claimed that many contract work arrangements involve a relationship between contractor and the hiring organization which differs little from the typical employer-employee relationship. That is, similar to an employee, the contractor is heavily dependent on the hiring organization for his or her income or livelihood and, moreover, has relatively little autonomy or control over working conditions. Thus independence one of the major advantages of self-employment is missing. At the same time, these contractors continue to bear all the risks associated with self-employment, such as poor job security and the absence of benefits typically available to employees. Self-employed contractors such as these have variously been referred to in the literature as the "fake self-employed" (Kuhl 1990), "bogus contractors" (Dombois and Osterland 1987) and "surrogate" employees (Burgess 1991). We have chosen to label them as "dependent contractors," thus emphasizing both the tendency for such workers to be counted among self-employed contractors and their dependence on the service recipient for on-going work and income. It is expected that such workers would be unlikely to be more satisfied with their jobs than employees working in otherwise comparable jobs. Indeed, we might expect far greater dissatisfaction. The approach adopted in the article is as follows. After introducing the data and methods of analyses, results from bivariate analyses are presented. Then results of a regression model of job satisfaction are detailed. The model includes controls for employment status (that is, self-employed contractors, other self-employed workers, and employees) alongside controls for other personal and industry characteristics. The analysis is then repeated after separately distinguishing "independent contractors" from "dependent contractors." The importance of the results is discussed in the conclusions. Data and Methods Data The data used in this article were collected by the Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS) as part of its May 1994 Population Survey Monitor (PSM). …

Teacher Participation in Decision-Making - Its Relationship to Staff Morale and Student Achievement

Abstract: "No one pretends that democracy is perfect or all-wise. Indeed, it has been said that democracy is the worst form of Government except all those other forms that have been tried from time to time." -- Winston Churchill, 1947 (cited in Platt, 1992, p. 83) Educational administrators have, of late, been asked to change the way they operate. Noting the lack of follow-through that frequently results from state mandates, policymakers have taken a different tack. Like managers in the corporate world, educators are now being asked to flatten organizational structures, reduce central office directives and permit employees the opportunity to take ownership for institutional decision-making. This initiative, it is argued, will tap the expertise of those employees most closely associated with the instructional process while making schools more responsive to institutional stockholders. Although intuitively appealing, the effort has thus far had mixed results. Reasons for this situation are as numerous as the number of different decision-making models now being used across the country. Organizational theorists such as Argyris, McGregor, Herzberg, Likert, and Ouchie have all suggested that participatory decision-making (PDM) would lead to more effective organizations and higher staff morale. The Human Relations School of Management of the 1930s-40s promulgated the notion that institutions might be more successful if managers would begin to consider the employee's individual and social needs. Abraham Maslow's 1943 theory of motivation pointed to the human need for self-actualization. Allowing employees a voice in decision-making is perhaps the most logical method for allowing this to occur. In a similar vein, Chris Argyris (1957) saw bureaucracies as imposing restraints on individuals by refusing to treat them as mature actors capable of self-direction. Douglas McGregor's Theory X and Theory Y (1960) focused on management's assumptions about employees. Managers who view subordinates as willing, cooperative, and responsible (Theory Y) treat them differently from managers who take the opposite viewpoint (Theory X). Since Theory Y managers have different expectations, they structure the work environment to provide employees opportunities to take on more responsibility. PDM would certainly allow this to happen. Frederick Herzberg's motivation-hygiene theory (1987) went even farther, positing that workers were not motivated by extrinsic factors such as salary, working conditions, and job security but by intrinsic factors such as achievement, recognition, and responsibility. PDM would contribute to any or all three of these. Rensis Likert's model (1967) dealt more with organizational climate, hypothesizing four types along a continuum from an authoritarian, control-oriented climate on one end to a very trusting, delegating, communicative climate on the other. Likert recommended moving organizations as closely as possible toward the latter. Finally, taking it impetus from the Japanese style of management, William Ouchi's Theory Z (1981) saw collective decision-making and egalitarianism as vital ingredients in everyday operations. Still, not all theorists agree. Decision-making models by Victor Vroom (1973), Tannebaum and Schmidt (1957), Hersey and Blanchard (1972), and Fiedler (1967) all imply a contingent style of management such that some situations call for subordinate participation while some do not. According to these models, managers should consider such factors as employee maturity, skill level, willingness to be involved, leader personality and the type of problem when using PDM techniques. Research Research on PDM is mixed. Vroom's 1964 review of 5 correlational studies and 3 field experiments found on balance that PDM had a positive impact on both production and job satisfaction. …

Multiple Job Holding as a 'Hedge' Against Unemployment

Abstract: This paper explores a possible link between job security and multiple job-holding in the United Kingdom. It is argued that an individual may hold a second job if they believe that their primary job has a high risk of termination. The reason is that holding a second job may cushion the financial impact of losing the main source of earnings, especially if there is scope for increasing the number of hours worked in the second job. Data from four waves of the British Household Panel Study are used to test this hypothesis. The empirical analysis provides (at best) very weak evidence in support of hedging behaviour of this type.

Life in a Japanese Women's College: Learning to be Ladylike

Abstract: One third of the Japanese female workforce are 'office ladies' and their training takes place in the many women's junior colleges. Office ladies are low-wage, low-status secretaries who have little or no job security. Brian J. McVeigh draws on his experience as a teacher at one such institution to explore the cultural and social processes used to promote 'femininity' in Japanese women. His detailed and ethnographically-informed study considers how the students of these institutions are socialized to fit their future dual roles of employees and mothers, and illuminates the sociopolitical role that the colleges play in Japanese society as a whole.

The future of trade unionism: injustice, identity and attribution

Abstract: States that the future of trade unionism depends partly on structural factors such as the level of unemployment and also on workers coming to believe that unionism is essential to protect their interests. Draws from the literature on social movements to analyse the ways in which workers arrive at such a viewpoint. According to theory workers must feel a sense of injustice, they must believe management is responsible and they must hold negative views of management. Data from the British Social Attitudes surveys suggest that a growing number of employees have indeed come to share such views. Posits that this encouraging news for trade unions is somewhat offset by the fact that a growing proportion of employees also believes unions may be too weak to make a difference at the workplace, but if this perception could be overcome then the future for unionism is very encouraging.

Job Insecurity and Labour Market Lemons: The (Mis)Management of Redundancy in Steel Making, Coal Mining and Port Transport†

Abstract: Redundancy provisions in Britain have failed to promote organizational regeneration or labour mobility from declining to expanding firms/industries. On the contrary, as human resources are wantonly discarded through the (mis)management of redundancy, job security and X-efficiency in the internal labour market has been severely eroded. In external labour markets, many redundant workers, the so-called `lemons' of the labour market, are consigned to long-term unemployment because employers are wary of hiring a worker that another firm does not want. These deleterious outcomes are elaborated through detailed case studies from steel-making, coal-mining and port transport, where mass redundancy has proved instrumental in the process of industrial restructuring. In order to re-establish trust and security in the internal labour market, alternative methods of managing changing labour market requirements, based on reconversion rather than redundancy, are considered in the concluding section.

Bargaining with Imperfect Information: A Study of Worker Perceptions of Legal Protection in an At-Will World

Abstract: This Article presents empirical evidence on an issue at the heart of the academic controversy over the at-will rule -- namely, whether employees have sufficient information to effectively negotiate issues of job security. Using a written survey to collect data from several hundred workers, the study documents a widespread misunderstanding of the basic default rule of employment at will. The results indicate that workers consistently overestimate their legal rights, with overwhelming majorities (as high as 89%) believing that they are legally protected against arbitrary and unjust discharges when in fact they can be dismissed at will. These findings directly contradict a crucial assumption made by Richard Epstein and other defenders of the at-will rule: the assumption that both employers and employees understand the grounds on which they contract. One of the chief virtues of the at-will rule, according to its defenders, is that it is merely a default rule; the parties remain free to contract around it. If, however, workers are unaware of the legal default rule, then their failure to contract for greater job security can no longer be presumed to represent their true preferences. The presence of a significant information failure of this sort casts doubt on the ability of workers to protect their interests, suggesting a breakdown in the bargaining process. Thus, these findings undermine the traditional economic argument that the market can be relied upon to produce an efficient outcome when it comes to job security terms.

Career management competences ‐ the individual perspective

Abstract: Asserts that flatter, delayered organizations offer fewer opportunities than before for long‐term job security and career progression in the conventional sense. Suggests that if flatter organizations are unable to provide career progression to the same degree as previously, new ways have to be found to retain and motivate staff and reward performance in the absence of opportunities to progress up the organizational ladder. Examines the implications for both individuals and organizations of this new employment climate.

Rethinking the Nature of Work: A Look at the Research Evidence

Abstract: In our traditional concept of work, both employer and employee enjoyed a degree of stability, the worker offering skills and loyalty in exchange for job security and potentially higher income. Human resources systems, including compensation systems, supported this view of work by making sure the company had an adequate stream of qualified workers with firm-specific skills. But times have changed-and human resources professionals now face the challenge of supporting the new work systems that appear to be emerging. The first step, says the author, is to gain a more accurate picture of the nature and extent of the changes. A mass of research data related to workplace trends has emerged from various sectors, private as well as public. A closer look at this data reveals a sharper-albeit still piecemeal-picture of what is happening in work systems, organizational structures, career ladders, job security, commitment, use of contract workers, and the like. The data also sharpen our focus on the challenges and par...

The Dynamic Demand for Part-time and Full-time Labour

Abstract: This paper explores the hypothesis that part-time work plays a distinct role in the adjustment strategies of firms in the face of economic shocks. Dynamic labour demand equations for part-time and full-time labour estimated from monthly data from the US Current Population Survey indicate that part-time labour is adjusted more rapidly in a number of industries. Furthermore, the adjustment of the two types of labour is not independent: disequilibrium in one slows the rate of adjustment of the other. These results lend support to the notion that part-time labour provides an important source of dynamic flexibility in some industries. Policies that reduce the relative costs of adjusting part-time labour, and changes in the economic environment that make flexibility more important to firms, may explain some of the growth in part-time employment that has taken place over the last several decades. Part-time employment has expanded significantly over the last several decades in both North America and Europe, standing at about 15.5% of the labour force in Germany in the early 1990s, 12.2% in France and 18.9% in the United States (Houseman 1995). This paper explores the hypothesis that part-time work plays a distinct and important role in the adjustment strategies of firms in the face of economic shocks. As suggested by a variety of authors and substantiated by a small amount of survey evidence (Zeytinoglu 1992), firms may be motivated to hire part-time workers partly because such workers can provide them with more flexibility in adjusting their labour forces. Obtaining evidence on this hypothesis can generate insight into one of the potential causes of the growth of part-time employment. Part-time labour may be more flexible than full-time labour for a number of reasons. If there are positive training costs, short-term layoffs will be costly when workers are not available for rehire when conditions improve. If parttime workers on short-term layoff are less likely to seek other employment, adjustment costs relating to training will be lower for them. Workers who choose full-time employment may on average have stronger preferences for regular schedules and constant incomes than do workers who are employed on a part-time basis. Varying hours or employment therefore may cause greater discontent among full-time workers than part-time workers, resulting in reduced productivity or compensatory wage increases. Finally, firms that pay efficiency wages may segment their labour forces into primary workers who have greater job security and secondary workers who act to absorb shocks to product demand. As Rebitzer and Taylor (1991) show, providing primary workers with a credible promise of future employment lowers the wage rate required to ensure that these workers do not shirk. For all the reasons just described, part-time workers may form a natural source of secondary workers for firms pursuing this strategy.

The Sari-Sari Store: Informal Retailing in the Philippines

Abstract: The pattern of development in Third World countries has resulted in a splitting of the labor force. One portion works in the formal, structured sector of the urban economy which is characterized by high wages, relatively good working conditions, job security, and an opportunity for advancement; the other portion works in the unstructured, informal sector with relatively low wages, poor working conditions, high variability in employment, and little opportunity for advancement. The Philippine economy offers little exception to this pattern. The magnitude of economic crisis that is confronting the country today has led to an increased role played by the informal sector, which appears to function basically as a coping mechanism. Referring to those working in this sector, Gatchalian et al. (1986) state: Their income generating activities enable them to subsist in an economy which can virtually no longer support them.... They respond directly to the needs of those who make up the large impoverished sector of the urban society... In effect, though highly informal, they have an efficient, inexpensive network of commerce and trade for the urban poor (p. 22). The Philippine informal sector is characterized by a large number of small-scale production and service activities that are individually or family-owned and use labor-intensive and simple technology. The self-employed workers in this sector have little formal education, are generally unskilled, and lack capital resources. As a result, worker productivity and income tend to be lower in the informal sector than in the formal sector. Moreover, workers in the informal sector do not enjoy the measure of protection afforded in the formal sector in terms of job security, decent working conditions, and old-age pensions. Most workers entering this sector are recent migrants from rural areas unable to find employment in the formal sector. Their motivation is usually to obtain sufficient income for survival purposes rather than to achieve any great profit, relying on their own indigenous resources to create work. As many members of the household as possible are involved in income-generating activities, including women and children, and they often work very long hours. Most inhabit shacks they themselves have built in slums and squatter settlements, which generally lack minimal public services such as electricity, water, drainage, transportation, and educational and health services (Farolan 1995). Against this backdrop, a coping mechanism know as the sari-sari store has evolved. The Sari-Sari Store In textbook parlance, the sari-sari store is a retailing operation, In the Philippine situation, however, customers perceive it as the primary source of consumer items in exactly the needed amounts. Sari-sari stores cluster in the interior parts of the metropolis to provide goods for their urban poor customers. Typically the store is operated from a portion of the owner's house dedicated to that purpose. The average size of a store is two by four meters. Crammed into this area are the display, stock room, and a small work place that also serves as an office. Transactions take place through a wide window, with the customer staying outside the store. Some stores add a carinderia, or small restaurant, to their sari-sari store. Methodology In a preliminary effort to investigate the characteristics of sari-sari stores, sampling approaches were applied to these stores in metro Manila. The sampling frame included the areas of the city which were busiest in terms of underground employment. The sampling units were randomly-selected persons engaged in operating a sari-sari store in these areas. Allocations of number of respondents to be selected per chosen area were based on the area's population. Results Bustling trade and manufacturing activities in the formal sector serve to attract "squatter" businesses that ply their sari-sari store wares on these sites. …

An evaluation of the characteristics of undergraduate psychology majors

Abstract: Strmmary.-This study evaluated the reasons 130 undergraduates selected psychology as a major. The most salient reason reported was a strong interest in the subject matter, bur the utility of the college degree as a means of preparing for a job or professional education was also important to the students. Of these participants, 73 indicared that at least one of their career goals was doctoral study in clinical or counseling psychology. Their ratings of the favorableness of the job market, salary, job autonomy, and job security exceeded the corresponding ratings of recent recipients of doctoral degrees in psychology. The undergraduates rated that private practice would be the most desirable practice setting, and they predicted "much" job autonomy in this setting and above-average job security across practice settings. These results suggest that educators in psychology may have responsibilities to counsel students who

Measuring Job Security

Abstract: It has been argued that in order to control costs, firms are increasingly seeking more flexibility in their use of labor. This argument has been widely made in both the academic and the popular press. Employers have sought this additional flexibility within their own work forces, as well as from sources outside their organizations. Internally, they have hired workers on a temporary basis; externally, they have obtained labor through temporary help agencies or by contracting with firms or individuals to provide specific services. Anecdotal evidence of the trend toward more flexible employment arrangements is fairly extensive; measuring the extent of such employment in the labor force as a whole, however, has been more problematic. The Bureau of Labor Statistics has collected some information that can be used to analyze job security in the United States. In periodic supplements to the Current Population Survey (CPS), individuals are asked about job tenure—time spent with their current employer. In February 1995, the Bureau conducted the first supplement to the CPS designed to obtain more information on another aspect of this issue: contingent and alternative employment arrangements. Contingent jobs, as defined in the supplement, are structured to last only a limited period; alternative employment arrangements include those made through intermediaries and those without standard work schedules. In this article, data from recent CPS supplements are used to examine the quality and the nature of variables that are utilized to measure job security. Job security is difficult to measure directly, but data on job tenure and contingent employment provide a means of examining the issue Measuring job security

Community Attempts at Sustainable Development through Corporate Accountability

Abstract: Sustainable development serves current needs without compromising the ability to serve future needs. Such is not likely given the structure of modern corporations and feeble attempts by governments to hold them accountable. This paper examines efforts by environment and labour coalitions in the United States to rein in the power of corporationsthrough such innovative practices as 'good neighbour' agreements aiming to reduce both community and worker exposure to pollution, repeal of the corporate charter for those businesses that are a public nuisance, and linking subsidies and tax relief routinely doled out to corporations to some accounting for pollution abatement, job security and economic justice.

An Economic Perspective of Academic Tenure.

Abstract: Today, tenure means many different things, including job security, merit reward, career motivator, protection for academic freedom, a multi-million dollar investment in a single professor, and the output of a legislative personnel process to colleges and universities (Whicker et al. 1993; p. 8-21). But increasingly, to the public and politicians, tenure is an unwarranted, unjustified, and unaffordable job perk that borders on a "rip-off" of innocent participants and bystanders in higher education (Naylor and Willimon 1996). Events at the University of Minnesota are but one example of several recent skirmishes over the practice of tenure (Sanchez 1996). Each side in the great tenure wars has interests which, if solidified in hardened positions, present an impediment to negotiating a compromise (Fisher et al. 1991; Crawley 1994). One approach is to draw from economics and its

Intranet Security: Stories from the Trenches

Abstract: 1. Visitors in the Night. An Unwanted Guest. Day 1: A Nice Night for a Hack. Day 2: Out of Sight, Out of Mind. Day 3: The Hack is Back. Days 4 to 7: Waiting to Exhale. Day 8: Too Little, Too Late. Day 9: Just the Facts. Summary: It Can Come from Within. Let's Not Go There. Focus on Prevention. Prepare for the Worst. React Quickly and Decisively. Follow Up. Checklist. Final Words. 2. The Bogus Box. Out-of-the-box Security. Day 1: False Security from a Box. Two Years Later: It Was Bound to Happen Eventually. + Two Weeks: Once Is Never Enough. + Three Weeks: No Quick Fix. The Saga Continues: A Disaster Awaits. Summary: Would You Hire this ISP? Let's Not Go There. Know Your Risks. Avoid Out-of-the-box Installations. Audit Your Network. Know the People Who Know Your Data. Assign or Acquire Adequate Funding for Security. Don't Export Read/Write Permissions to the World. Remove Old Accounts. Forbid the Use of Crackable Passwords. Apply Security Patches. Follow Policies and Procedures. Get Help. Use Training. Checklist. Final Words. 3. Executive Nightmare. Can You Hear Me At The Top? Day 1: Not a Security Measure in Sight. A Year Later: The Hacks Continue. Summary: Take an Active Approach. Let's Not Go There. Commit to Security from the Top Down. Speak Softly and ACT LOUDLY. Keep Levels of Management to a Minimum. Report Back! Set Security as a Management Goal. Provide or Take Training as Required. Make Sure that All Managers Understand Security. Check that System Administrators Communicate Needs Clearly. Checklist. Final Words. 4. Controlling Access. The Never-ending Network. Day 1: An Ill Fated Plan for Outside Access. A Few Weeks Later: Dave's Big Mistake. The Next Day: Who's Job is Security, Anyway? Over the Next 29 Days: And the Hacker Wanders Quietly. + One Month: A Spot Audit Spots the Hacker. Audit Day 1: Follow the Network Map to Follow the Security Hole. Audit Day 2: An Unenforced Policy is a Useless Policy. The Last Audit Day: The Wrong Man for the Job is Worse than No Man for the Job. Summary: Close the Door to the Competition. Let's Not Go There. Use Standard Architecture Designs. Track External Connections. Take Responsibility for Your Territory. Require Approval for External Connections. Enforce Policies and Procedures. Disable Unnecessary Services. Stress the Importance of Training. Follow Through. Don't Connect Unsecured Systems to the Internet. Checklist. Final Words. 5. What You Don't Know. Sink or Swim? Initial Contact: A Good Sign. Day 1: Don't Put Your Security Eggs in One Basket. Day 2: The Penetration Begins. Day 3: Sink or Swin Always Means Sink. Summary: Can't Afford the Power of Negative Training. Let's Not Go There. Have Management Send the Right Security Message. Educate Executive Management. Protect the Security Training Budget. Make Security a Management Requirement. Make Training a System Administrator Requirement. Attend Security Seminars. Have Brown Bag Lunches. Disseminate Security Information. Join Security Aliases. Write White Papers. Write for Newsletters. Develop Tools into Products. Checklist. Final Words. 6. Risking the Corporation. Trauma Zone. Day 1: An Unscheduled Audit. A Game of Risk is a Game of Strategy. Phase One: Dress the Part. Phase Two: Infiltrate Physical Security. Phase Three: A Walk Through the System Park. Day 2: Patient Records at Risk. Summary: Look Before You Leap. Let's Not Go There. Assess Risks. Classify Systems. Forbid Out-of-the-box Installations. Don't Be Too Trusting. Learn from the Past. Target Budget Cuts. Conduct Security Audits. Hold Management Accountable. Don't Set Yourself Up. Include Training in Right-sizing Budgets. Keep Score. Checklist. Final Words. 7. Not My Job. Come On In, The Door's Open. Day 1: Why Can't We Lock the Hackers Out? Day 2: The Usual Suspects. Stuck on Band-Aides for Job Security. Moving On. When You Hear "Don't Worry," Start Worrying. My Last Day: Breaking the News. Summary: Ask Not What Your Company's Security Can Do for You. Let's Not Go There. Define Roles and Responsibilities. Develop Firewall Policies and Procedures. Feed Your Firewall. Read Your Audit Logs. Use Detection Software. Respond Quickly! Require Proof of Security. Conduct Audits. Get Educated. Checklist. Final Words. 8. For Art's Sake. Policies? What Policies? In the Beginning: A Conflict Arises. Day 1: In Search of Tangible Evidence. Day 2: Whose Side Are You On, Anyway? System Admins: It's Not Our Problem, It's Theirs. Security Team: It's Not Our Problem, It's Theirs. Summary: Security is the Casualty of War. Let's Not Go There. Put Someone in Charge of Policies and Procedures. Delineate Cross-organizational Security Support. Don't Wait for Miracles. Question Processes. Know When to Cry "Uncle". Be Responsible. Checklist. Final Words. 9. Outsourcing the Store. I Did It My Way. Day 1: On the Surface, Everything Appears Normal. Day 2: A Skeleton Key to Success. Cracking the Case. Lifestyles of the Untrained and Inexperienced. Days 3 and 4: The Fix Is Up to Them. Summary: Stop! Look! Audit. Let's Not Go There. Conduct Audits. Do It Right. Do It Regularly. Use the Freebies. Fix the Problems You Find. Kill the Sink-or-Swim Trainers. Checklist. Final Words. 10. What They See Can Hurt You. E-mail or See Mail? Personal Data in 30 Seconds Flat. Summary: You Have the Right to Waive Your Right to Privacy. Let's Not Go There. Use Encryption! Encourage Your Friends to Encrypt. Add Encryption to Your Security Budget. Promote Strong Cryptography Everywhere. Watch for Other E-mail Hazards. Final Words. 11. A Hacker's Walk Through the Network. A Hacker's Profile. The Real Hackers. About Those Tools. Walking with the Hacker. What the Hacker Was Doing. Conclusion. Appendix A: People and Products to Know. Glossary. Index.