Showing papers on "Magnetotactic bacteria published in 2012"

Molecular mechanisms of compartmentalization and biomineralization in magnetotactic bacteria.

Abstract: Magnetotactic bacteria (MB) are remarkable organisms with the ability to exploit the earth's magnetic field for navigational purposes. To do this, they build specialized compartments called magnetosomes that consist of a lipid membrane and a crystalline magnetic mineral. These organisms have the potential to serve as models for the study of compartmentalization as well as biomineralization in bacteria. Additionally, they offer the opportunity to design applications that take advantage of the particular properties of magnetosomes. In recent years, a sustained effort to identify the molecular basis of this process has resulted in a clearer understanding of the magnetosome formation and biomineralization. Here, I present an overview of MB and explore the possible molecular mechanisms of membrane remodeling, protein sorting, cytoskeletal organization, iron transport, and biomineralization that lead to the formation of a functional magnetosome organelle.

Single-cell analysis reveals a novel uncultivated magnetotactic bacterium within the candidate division OP3.

Abstract: Magnetotactic bacteria (MTB) are a diverse group of prokaryotes that orient along magnetic fields using membrane-coated magnetic nanocrystals of magnetite (Fe(3) O(4) ) or greigite (Fe(3) S(4) ), the magnetosomes. Previous phylogenetic analysis of MTB has been limited to few cultivated species and most abundant members of natural populations, which were assigned to Proteobacteria and the Nitrospirae phyla. Here, we describe a single cell-based approach that allowed the targeted phylogenetic and ultrastructural analysis of the magnetotactic bacterium SKK-01, which was low abundant in sediments of Lake Chiemsee. Morphologically conspicuous single cells of SKK-01 were micromanipulated from magnetically collected multi-species MTB populations, which was followed by whole genome amplification and ultrastructural analysis of sorted cells. Besides intracellular sulphur inclusions, the large ovoid cells of SKK-01 harbour ∼175 bullet-shaped magnetosomes arranged in multiple chains that consist of magnetite as revealed by TEM and EDX analysis. Sequence analysis of 16 and 23S rRNA genes from amplified genomic DNA as well as fluorescence in situ hybridization assigned SKK-01 to the candidate division OP3, which so far lacks any cultivated representatives. SKK-01 represents the first morphotype that can be assigned to the OP3 group as well as the first magnetotactic member of the PVC superphylum.

Novel magnetite-producing magnetotactic bacteria belonging to the Gammaproteobacteria

Abstract: Two novel magnetotactic bacteria (MTB) were isolated from sediment and water collected from the Badwater Basin, Death Valley National Park and southeastern shore of the Salton Sea, respectively, and were designated as strains BW-2 and SS-5, respectively. Both organisms are rod-shaped, biomineralize magnetite, and are motile by means of flagella. The strains grow chemolithoautotrophically oxidizing thiosulfate and sulfide microaerobically as electron donors, with thiosulfate oxidized stoichiometrically to sulfate. They appear to utilize the Calvin–Benson–Bassham cycle for autotrophy based on ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase (RubisCO) activity and the presence of partial sequences of RubisCO genes. Strains BW-2 and SS-5 biomineralize chains of octahedral magnetite crystals, although the crystals of SS-5 are elongated. Based on 16S rRNA gene sequences, both strains are phylogenetically affiliated with the Gammaproteobacteria class. Strain SS-5 belongs to the order Chromatiales; the cultured bacterium with the highest 16S rRNA gene sequence identity to SS-5 is Thiohalocapsa marina (93.0%). Strain BW-2 clearly belongs to the Thiotrichales; interestingly, the organism with the highest 16S rRNA gene sequence identity to this strain is Thiohalospira alkaliphila (90.2%), which belongs to the Chromatiales. Each strain represents a new genus. This is the first report of magnetite-producing MTB phylogenetically associated with the Gammaproteobacteria. This finding is important in that it significantly expands the phylogenetic diversity of the MTB. Physiology of these strains is similar to other MTB and continues to demonstrate their potential in nitrogen, iron, carbon and sulfur cycling in natural environments.

Magnetic characterization of isolated candidate vertebrate magnetoreceptor cells

Abstract: Over the past 50 y, behavioral experiments have produced a large body of evidence for the existence of a magnetic sense in a wide range of animals. However, the underlying sensory physiology remains poorly understood due to the elusiveness of the magnetosensory structures. Here we present an effective method for isolating and characterizing potential magnetite-based magnetoreceptor cells. In essence, a rotating magnetic field is employed to visually identify, within a dissociated tissue preparation, cells that contain magnetic material by their rotational behavior. As a tissue of choice, we selected trout olfactory epithelium that has been previously suggested to host candidate magnetoreceptor cells. We were able to reproducibly detect magnetic cells and to determine their magnetic dipole moment. The obtained values (4 to 100 fAm2) greatly exceed previous estimates (0.5 fAm2). The magnetism of the cells is due to a μm-sized intracellular structure of iron-rich crystals, most likely single-domain magnetite. In confocal reflectance imaging, these produce bright reflective spots close to the cell membrane. The magnetic inclusions are found to be firmly coupled to the cell membrane, enabling a direct transduction of mechanical stress produced by magnetic torque acting on the cellular dipole in situ. Our results show that the magnetically identified cells clearly meet the physical requirements for a magnetoreceptor capable of rapidly detecting small changes in the external magnetic field. This would also explain interference of ac powerline magnetic fields with magnetoreception, as reported in cattle.

The magnetosome membrane protein, MmsF, is a major regulator of magnetite biomineralization in Magnetospirillum magneticum AMB‐1

Abstract: Magnetotactic bacteria (MTB) use magnetosomes, membrane-bound crystals of magnetite or greigite, for navigation along geomagnetic fields. In Magnetospirillum magneticum sp. AMB-1, and other MTB, a magnetosome gene island (MAI) is essential for every step of magnetosome formation. An 8-gene region of the MAI encodes several factors implicated in control of crystal size and morphology in previous genetic and proteomic studies. We show that these factors play a minor role in magnetite biomineralization in vivo. In contrast, MmsF, a previously uncharacterized magnetosome membrane protein encoded within the same region plays a dominant role in defining crystal size and morphology and is sufficient for restoring magnetite synthesis in the absence of the other major biomineralization candidates. In addition, we show that the 18 genes of the mamAB gene cluster of the MAI are sufficient for the formation of an immature magnetosome organelle. Addition of MmsF to these 18 genes leads to a significant enhancement of magnetite biomineralization and an increase in the cellular magnetic response. These results define a new biomineralization protein and lay down the foundation for the design of autonomous gene cassettes for the transfer of the magnetic phenotype in other bacteria.

Magnetic anisotropy, magnetostatic interactions and identification of magnetofossils

Abstract: [1] Single-domain magnetite particles produced by magnetotactic bacteria (MTB) and aligned in chains, called magnetosomes, are potentially important recorders of paleomagnetic, paleoenvironmental and paleolife signals. Rock magnetic properties related to the anisotropy of magnetosome chains have been widely used to identify fossilized magnetosomes (magnetofossils) preserved in geological materials. However, ambiguities exist when linking magnetic properties to the chain structure because of the complexity of chain integrity and magnetostatic interactions among magnetofossils that results from chain collapse during post-depositional diagenesis. In this paper, magnetic properties of three sets of samples containing extracted magnetosomes of the culturedMagnetospirillum magneticumstrain AMB-1 were analyzed to determine how chain integrity and particle concentration influence magnetic properties. Intact MTB and well-dispersed magnetosome chains are characterized by strong magnetic anisotropy and weak magnetostatic interactions, but progressive chain breakup and particle clumping significantly increase the degree of magnetostatic interaction. This results in a change of the magnetic signature toward properties typical of interacting, single-domain particles, i.e., a decrease of the ratio of anhysteretic remanent magnetization to the saturation isothermal remanent magnetization, decreasing in the crossing point of the Wohlfarth-Cisowski test and in the delta ratio between losses of field and zero-field cooled remanent magnetization across the Verwey transition, as well as vertical broadening of the first-order reversal curve distribution. We propose a new diagram that summarizes the Verwey transition properties, with diagnostic limits for intact and collapsed chains of magnetosomes. This diagram can be used, in conjunction with other parameters, to identify unoxidized magnetofossils in sediments and rocks.

The Periplasmic Nitrate Reductase Nap Is Required for Anaerobic Growth and Involved in Redox Control of Magnetite Biomineralization in Magnetospirillum gryphiswaldense

Abstract: The magnetosomes of many magnetotactic bacteria consist of membrane-enveloped magnetite crystals, whose synthesis is favored by a low redox potential. However, the cellular redox processes governing the biomineralization of the mixed-valence iron oxide have remained unknown. Here, we show that in the alphaproteobacterium Magnetospirillum gryphiswaldense, magnetite biomineralization is linked to dissimilatory nitrate reduction. A complete denitrification pathway, including gene functions for nitrate (nap), nitrite (nir), nitric oxide (nor), and nitrous oxide reduction (nos), was identified. Transcriptional gusA fusions as reporters revealed that except for nap, the highest expression of the denitrification genes coincided with conditions permitting maximum magnetite synthesis. Whereas microaerobic denitrification overlapped with oxygen respiration, nitrate was the only electron acceptor supporting growth in the entire absence of oxygen, and only the deletion of nap genes, encoding a periplasmic nitrate reductase, and not deletion of nor or nos genes, abolished anaerobic growth and also delayed aerobic growth in both nitrate and ammonium media. While loss of nosZ or norCB had no or relatively weak effects on magnetosome synthesis, deletion of nap severely impaired magnetite biomineralization and resulted in fewer, smaller, and irregular crystals during denitrification and also microaerobic respiration, probably by disturbing the proper redox balance required for magnetite synthesis. In contrast to the case for the wild type, biomineralization in Δnap cells was independent of the oxidation state of carbon substrates. Altogether, our data demonstrate that in addition to its essential role in anaerobic respiration, the periplasmic nitrate reductase Nap has a further key function by participating in redox reactions required for magnetite biomineralization.

Magnetosomes eliminate intracellular reactive oxygen species in Magnetospirillum gryphiswaldense MSR‐1

Abstract: Summary Magnetotactic bacteria synthesize magnetic particles called magnetosomes that cause them to orient to their external magnetic fields. However, the physiological significance and other possible functions of these magnetosomes have not been explored in detail. In this study, we have investigated the biological functions of magnetosomes with respect to their ability to scavenge reactive oxygen species (ROS) in Magnetospirillum gryphiswaldense MSR-1. To assess the changes in ROS levels under different conditions, cells were cultured under aerobic or micro-aerobic conditions in medium containing high and low amounts of iron. To ensure that the observed results were not due to nonspecific interactions, reactions were carried out using a mutant deficient in synthesizing magnetite (mamO-deficient mutant), its complementary strain or the wild-type MSR-1. We observed that the levels of intercellular ROS under micro-aerobic conditions with high-iron medium were much higher when the non-synthetic Fe3O4 crystals mutant Mu21-415 was employed for the assay, compared with the wild-type or complementary strain, or when conditions were aerobic with low-iron medium. These results indicated that magnetosomes function in the scavenging of intracellular ROS. Furthermore, we have demonstrated that the magnetosomes exhibit peroxidase-like properties, by using the earlier reported in vitro horseradish peroxidase assay for artificial magnetic nanoparticles. In addition to possessing peroxidase-like activity, the magnetosomes also exhibited a more enzymatic kinetic response, suggesting that proteins on the membranes of the magnetosomes likely contribute to the enzymatic activity. This is the first study to demonstrate that magnetosomes play an important role in decreasing or eliminating ROS.

Newly isolated but uncultivated magnetotactic bacterium of the phylum Nitrospirae from Beijing, China.

Abstract: Magnetotactic bacteria (MTB) in the phylum Nitrospirae synthesize up to hundreds of intracellular bullet-shaped magnetite magnetosomes. In the present study, a watermelon-shaped magnetotactic bacterium (designated MWB-1) from Lake Beihai in Beijing, China, was characterized. This uncultivated microbe was identified as a member of the phylum Nitrospirae and represents a novel phylogenetic lineage with ≥6% 16S rRNA gene sequence divergence from all currently described MTB. MWB-1 contained 200 to 300 intracellular bullet-shaped magnetite magnetosomes and showed a helical swimming trajectory under homogeneous magnetic fields; its magnetotactic velocity decreased with increasing field strength, and vice versa. A robust phylogenetic framework for MWB-1 and all currently known MTB in the phylum Nitrospirae was constructed utilizing maximum-likelihood and Bayesian algorithms, which yielded strong evidence that the Nitrospirae MTB could be divided into four well-supported groups. Considering its population densities in sediment and its high numbers of magnetosomes, MWB-1 was estimated to account for more than 10% of the natural remanent magnetization of the surface sediment. Taken together, the results of this study suggest that MTB in the phylum Nitrospirae are more diverse than previously realized and can make important contributions to the sedimentary magnetization in particular environments.

Magnetochrome: a c-type cytochrome domain specific to magnetotatic bacteria

Abstract: Magnetotactic bacteria consist of a group of taxonomically, physiologically and morphologically diverse prokaryotes, with the singular ability to align with geomagnetic field lines, a phenomenon referred to as magnetotaxis. This magnetotactic property is due to the presence of iron-rich crystals embedded in lipidic vesicles forming an organelle called the magnetosome. Magnetosomes are composed of single-magnetic-domain nanocrystals of magnetite (Fe 3 O 4 ) or greigite (Fe 3 S 4 ) embedded in biological membranes, thereby forming a prokaryotic organelle. Four specific steps are described in this organelle formation: (i) membrane specialization, (ii) iron acquisition, (iii) magnetite (or greigite) biocrystallization, and (iv) magnetosome alignment. The formation of these magnetic crystals is a genetically controlled process, which is governed by enzyme-catalysed processes. On the basis of protein sequence analysis of genes known to be involved in magnetosome formation in Magnetospirillum magneticum AMB-1, we have identified a subset of three membrane-associated or periplasmic proteins containing a double cytochrome c signature motif CXXCH: MamE, MamP and MamT. The presence of these proteins suggests the existence of an electron-transport chain inside the magnetosome, contributing to the process of biocrystallization. We have performed heterologous expression in E. coli of the cytochrome c motif-containing domains of MamE, MamP and MamT. Initial biophysical characterization has confirmed that MamE, MamP and MamT are indeed c -type cytochromes. Furthermore, determination of redox potentials for this new family of c -type cytochromes reveals midpoint potentials of −76 and −32 mV for MamP and MamE respectively.

Construction and operation of a microrobot based on magnetotactic bacteria in a microfluidic chip

Abstract: Magnetotactic bacteria (MTB) are capable of swimming along magnetic field lines. This unique feature renders them suitable in the development of magnetic-guided, auto-propelled microrobots to serve in target molecule separation and detection, drug delivery, or target cell screening in a microfluidic chip. The biotechnology to couple these bacteria with functional loads to form microrobots is the critical point in its application. Although an immunoreaction approach to attach functional loads to intact MTB was suggested, details on its realization were hardly mentioned. In the current paper, MTB-microrobots were constructed by attaching 2 μm diameter microbeads to marine magnetotactic ovoid MO-1 cells through immunoreactions. These microrobots were controlled using a special control and tracking system. Experimental results prove that the attachment efficiency can be improved to ∼30% via an immunoreaction. The motility of the bacteria attached with different number of loads was also assessed. The results show that MTB can transport one load at a velocity of ∼21 μm/s and still move and survive for over 30 min. The control and tracking system is fully capable of directing and monitoring the movement of the MTB-microrobots. The rotating magnetic fields can stop the microrobots by trapping them as they swim within a circular field with a controllable size. The system has potential use in chemical analyses and medical diagnoses using biochips as well as in nano/microscale transport.

Environmental Factors Affect Magnetite Magnetosome Synthesis in Magnetospirillum magneticum AMB-1: Implications for Biologically Controlled Mineralization

Abstract: It is widely believed that magnetotactic bacteria (MTB) form membrane-enveloped magnetite crystals (magnetosomes) under strict genetic control. In this study, the Magnetospirillum magneticum strain...

A biogeographic distribution of magnetotactic bacteria influenced by salinity

Abstract: Magnetotactic bacteria (MTB), which synthesize intracellular ferromagnetic magnetite and/or greigite magnetosomes, have significant roles in global iron cycling in aquatic systems, as well as sedimentary magnetism. The occurrence of MTB has been reported in aquatic environments from freshwater to marine ecosystems; however, the distribution of MTB across heterogeneous habitats remains unclear. Here we examined the MTB communities from diverse habitats across northern and southern China, using comprehensive transmission electron microscopy and comparison of 16S rRNA gene analyses. A total of 334 16S rRNA gene sequences were analyzed, representing the most comprehensive analysis on the diversity and distribution of MTB to date. The majority (95%) of sequences belong to the Alphaproteobacteria, whereas a population of giant magnetotactic rod is affiliated with the Nitrospirae phylum. By a statistical comparison of these sequence data and publicly available MTB sequences, we infer for the first time that the composition of MTB communities represents a biogeographic distribution across globally heterogeneous environments, which is influenced by salinity.

FeoB2 Functions in Magnetosome Formation and Oxidative Stress Protection in Magnetospirillum gryphiswaldense Strain MSR-1

Abstract: Magnetotactic bacteria (MTB) synthesize unique organelles, the magnetosomes, which are intracellular nanometer-sized, membrane-enveloped magnetite. The biomineralization of magnetosomes involves the uptake of large amounts of iron. However, the iron metabolism of MTB is not well understood. The genome of the magnetotactic bacterium Magnetospirillum gryphiswaldense strain MSR-1 contains two ferrous iron transport genes, feoB1 and feoB2. The FeoB1 protein was reported to be responsible mainly for the transport of ferrous iron and to play an accessory role in magnetosome formation. To determine the role of feoB2, we constructed an feoB2 deletion mutant (MSR-1 ΔfeoB2) and an feoB1 feoB2 double deletion mutant (MSR-1 NfeoB). The single feoB2 mutation did not affect magnetite crystal biomineralization. MSR-1 NfeoB had a significantly lower average magnetosome number per cell (∼65%) than MSR-1 ΔfeoB1, indicating that FeoB2 plays a role in magnetosome formation when the feoB1 gene is deleted. Our findings showed that FeoB1 has a greater ferrous iron transport ability than FeoB2 and revealed the differential roles of FeoB1 and FeoB2 in MSR-1 iron metabolism. Interestingly, compared to the wild type, the feoB mutants showed increased sensitivity to oxidative stress and lower activities of the enzymes superoxide dismutase and catalase, indicating that the FeoB proteins help protect bacterial cells from oxidative stress.

Highest levels of Cu, Mn and Co doped into nanomagnetic magnetosomes through optimized biomineralisation

Abstract: Magnetotactic bacteria synthesize pure morphologically precise nano-magnetite crystals called magnetosomes. Doping magnetosomes varies their magnetic properties, making them very promising nanomaterials. Here we present the highest doping of Co2+ (3.0%), Mn2+ (2.7%) and Cu2+ (15.6%) into magnetosomes in vivo. Most significantly, the first report of Cu-doping in magnetite magnetosomes and the highest metal doped into magnetosomes recorded. A 2-fold increase is recorded for Mn and Co doping over previous reports.

Using the magnetosome to model effective gene-based contrast for magnetic resonance imaging.

Abstract: Formation of iron biominerals is a naturally occurring phenomenon, particularly among magnetotactic bacteria which produce magnetite (Fe(3) O(4) ) in a subcellular compartment termed the magnetosome. Under the control of numerous genes, the magnetosome serves as a model upon which to (1) develop gene-based contrast in mammalian cells and (2) provide a mechanism for reporter gene expression in magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). There are two main components to the magnetosome: the biomineral and the lipid bilayer that surrounds it. Both are essential for magnetotaxis in a variety of magnetotactic bacteria, but nonessential for cell survival. Through comparative genome analysis, a subset of genes characteristic of the magnetotactic phenotype has been found both within and outside a magnetosome genomic island. The functions of magnetosome-associated proteins reflect the complex nature of this intracellular structure and include vesicle formation, cytoskeletal attachment, iron transport, and crystallization. Examination of magnetosome genes and structure indicates a protein-directed and stepwise assembly of the magnetosome compartment. Attachment of magnetosomes along a cytoskeletal filament aligns the magnetic particles such that the cell may be propelled along an external magnetic field. Interest in this form of magnetotaxis has prompted research in several areas of medicine, including magnetotactic bacterial targeting of tumors, MR-guided movement of magnetosome-bearing cells through vessels and molecular imaging of mammalian cells using MRI, and its hybrid modalities. The potential adaptation of magnetosome genes for noninvasive medical imaging provides new opportunities for development of reporter gene expression for MRI.

Interplay of magnetic interactions and active movements in the formation of magnetosome chains.

Abstract: Magnetotactic bacteria assemble chains of magnetosomes, organelles that contain magnetic nano-crystals. A number of genetic factors involved in the controlled biomineralization of these crystals and the assembly of magnetosome chains have been identified in recent years, but how the specific biological regulation is coordinated with general physical processes such as diffusion and magnetic interactions remains unresolved. Here, these questions are addressed by simulations of different scenarios for magnetosome chain formation, in which various physical processes and interactions are either switched on or off. The simulation results indicate that purely physical processes of magnetosome diffusion, guided by their magnetic interactions, are not sufficient for the robust chain formation observed experimentally and suggest that biologically encoded active movements of magnetosomes may be required. Not surprisingly, the chain pattern is most resembling experimental results when both magnetic interactions and active movement are coordinated. We estimate that the force such active transport has to generate is compatible with forces generated by the polymerization or depolymerization of cytoskeletal filaments. The simulations suggest that the pleiotropic phenotypes of mamK deletion strains may be due to a defect in active motility of magnetosomes and that crystal formation in magneteosome vesicles is coupled to the activation of their active motility in M. gryphiswaldense, but not in M. magneticum.

Magnetotactic bacteria: promising biosorbents for heavy metals

Abstract: Magnetotactic bacteria (MTB), which can orient and migrate along a magnetic line of force due to intracellular nanosized magnetosomes, have been a subject of research in the medical field, in dating environmental changes, and in environmental remediation. This paper reviews the recent development of MTB as biosorbents for heavy metals. Ultrastructures and taxis of MTB are investigated. Adsorptions in systems of unitary and binary ions are highlighted, as well as adsorption conditions (temperature, pH value, biomass concentration, and pretreatments). The separation and desorption of MTB in magnetic separators are also discussed. A green method to produce metal nanoparticles is provided, and an energy-efficient way to recover precious metals is put forward during biosorption.

Prismatic magnetite magnetosomes from cultivated Magnetovibrio blakemorei strain MV‐1: a magnetic fingerprint in marine sediments?

Abstract: SummaryThe magnetic properties (first-order reversal curves,ferromagnetic resonance and decomposition of satu-ration remanent magnetization acquisition) of Magne-tovibrioblakemorei ,acultivatedmarinemagnetotacticbacterium, differ from those of other magnetotacticspeciesfromsedimentsdepositedinlakesandmarinehabitatspreviouslystudied.Thisfindingsuggeststhatmagnetite produced by some magnetotactic bacteriaretains magnetic properties in relation to the crystal-lographic structure of the magnetic phase producedand thus might represent a ‘magnetic fingerprint’for aspecific magnetotactic bacterium. The use of this fin-gerprint is a non-destructive, new technology thatmight allow for the identification and presence of spe-cific species or types of magnetotactic bacteria incertain environments such as sediments.Introduction Magnetotactic bacteria are prokaryotic microorganismswhichinternallybiomineralizemagnetite(Fe 3 O 4 )orgreigite(Fe 3 S 4 )crystals(nanoparticles)orbothenvelopedinalipidbilayer membrane. These organelles, called magneto-somes, contribute significantly to the magnetic propertiesof sediments (Bazylinski and Frankel, 2004). Magneto-somes have very interesting biotechnological chara-cteristics because they are made of singular, perfect,single-magnetic-domain (SD) crystals of magnetite orgreigite that are usually aligned in chains within the cell(Schuler, 2006).Here we present the results of a study using

The MagA Protein of Magnetospirilla Is Not Involved in Bacterial Magnetite Biomineralization

Abstract: Magnetotactic bacteria have the ability to orient along geomagnetic field lines based on the formation of magnetosomes, which are intracellular nanometer-sized, membrane-enclosed magnetic iron minerals. The formation of these unique bacterial organelles involves several processes, such as cytoplasmic membrane invagination and magnetosome vesicle formation, the accumulation of iron in the vesicles, and the crystallization of magnetite. Previous studies suggested that the magA gene encodes a magnetosome-directed ferrous iron transporter with a supposedly essential function for magnetosome formation in Magnetospirillum magneticum AMB-1 that may cause magnetite biomineralization if expressed in mammalian cells. However, more recent studies failed to detect the MagA protein among polypeptides associated with the magnetosome membrane and did not identify magA within the magnetosome island, a conserved genomic region that is essential for magnetosome formation in magnetotactic bacteria. This raised increasing doubts about the presumptive role of magA in bacterial magnetosome formation, which prompted us to reassess MagA function by targeted deletion in Magnetospirillum magneticum AMB-1 and Magnetospirillum gryphiswaldense MSR-1. Contrary to previous reports, magA mutants of both strains still were able to form wild-type-like magnetosomes and had no obvious growth defects. This unambiguously shows that magA is not involved in magnetosome formation in magnetotactic bacteria.

The chemical formula of a magnetotactic bacterium.

Abstract: Elucidation of the chemical logic of life is one of the grand challenges in biology, and essential to the progress of the upcoming field of synthetic biology. Treatment of microbial cells explicitly as a "chemical" species in controlled reaction (growth) environments has allowed fascinating discoveries of elemental formulae of a few species that have guided the modern views on compositions of a living cell. Application of mass and energy balances on living cells has proved to be useful in modeling of bioengineering systems, particularly in deriving optimized media compositions for growing microorganisms to maximize yields of desired bio-derived products by regulating intra-cellular metabolic networks. In this work, application of elemental mass balance during growth of Magnetospirillum gryphiswaldense in bioreactors has resulted in the discovery of the chemical formula of the magnetotactic bacterium. By developing a stoichiometric equation characterizing the formation of a magnetotactic bacterial cell, coupled with rigorous experimental measurements and robust calculations, we report the elemental formula of M. gryphiswaldense cell as CH(2.06)O(0.13)N(0.28)Fe(1.74×10(-3)). Remarkably, we find that iron metabolism during growth of this magnetotactic bacterium is much more correlated individually with carbon and nitrogen, compared to carbon and nitrogen with each other, indicating that iron serves more as a nutrient during bacterial growth rather than just a mineral. Magnetotactic bacteria have not only invoked some interest in the field of astrobiology for the last two decades, but are also prokaryotes having the unique ability of synthesizing membrane bound intracellular organelles. Our findings on these unique prokaryotes are a strong addition to the limited repertoire, of elemental compositions of living cells, aimed at exploring the chemical logic of life.

Two Genera of Magnetococci with Bean-like Morphology from Intertidal Sediments of the Yellow Sea, China

Abstract: Magnetotactic bacteria have the unique capacity of being able to swim along geomagnetic field lines. They are Gram-negative bacteria with diverse morphologies and variable phylogenetic relatedness. Here, we describe a group of uncultivated marine magnetococci collected from intertidal sediments of Huiquan Bay in the Yellow Sea. They were coccoid-ovoid in morphology, with an average size of 2.8 +/- 0.3 mu m by 2.0 +/- 0.2 mu m. Differential interference contrast microscopy, fluorescence microscopy, and transmission electron microscopy revealed that each cell was apparently composed of two hemispheres. The cells synthesized iron oxide-type magnetosomes that clustered on one side of the cell at the interface between the two hemispheres. In some cells two chains of magnetosomes were observed across the interface. Each cell had two bundles of flagella enveloped in a sheath and displayed north-seeking helical motion. Two 16S rRNA gene sequences having 91.8% identity were obtained, and their authenticity was confirmed by fluorescence in situ hybridization. Phylogenetic analysis revealed that the magnetococci are affiliated with the Alphaproteobacteria and are most closely related to two uncultured magnetococci with sequence identities of 92.7% and 92.4%, respectively. Because they display a >7% sequence divergence to all bacteria reported, the bean-like magnetococci may represent two novel genera.

The effect of iron-chelating agents on Magnetospirillum magneticum strain AMB-1: stimulated growth and magnetosome production and improved magnetosome heating properties

Abstract: The introduction of various iron-chelating agents to the Magnetospirillum magneticum strain AMB-1 bacterial growth medium stimulated the growth of M. magneticum strain AMB-1 magnetotactic bacteria and enhanced the production of magnetosomes. After 7 days of growth, the number of bacteria and the production of magnetosomes were increased in the presence of iron-chelating agents by factors of up to ∼2 and ∼6, respectively. The presence of iron-chelating agents also produced an increase in magnetosome size and chain length and yielded improved magnetosome heating properties. The specific absorption rate of suspensions of magnetosome chains isolated from M. magneticum strain AMB-1 magnetotactic bacteria, measured under the application of an alternating magnetic field of average field strength ∼20 mT and frequency 198 kHz, increased from ∼222 W/gFe in the absence of iron-chelating agent up to ∼444 W/gFe in the presence of 4 μM rhodamine B and to ∼723 W/gFe in the presence of 4 μM EDTA. These observations were made at an iron concentration of 20 μM and iron-chelating agent concentrations below 40 μM.