Showing papers on "Meaningful learning published in 2000"

How a qualitative approach to concept map analysis can be used to aid learning by illustrating patterns of conceptual development

Abstract: This paper describes a qualitative approach to analysing students' concept maps. The classification highlights three major patterns which are referred to as 'spoke', 'chain' and 'net' structures. Examples are given from Year 8 science classes. The patterns are interpreted as being indicators of progressive levels of understanding. It is proposed that identification of these differences may help the classroom teacher to focus teaching for more effective learning and may be used as a basis for structuring groups in collaborative settings. This approach to analysing concept maps is of value because it suggests teaching approaches that help students integrate new knowledge and build upon their existing naive concepts. We also refer to the teacher's scheme of work and to the National Curriculum for science in order to consider their influence in the construction of understanding. These ideas have been deliberately offered for early publication to encourage debate and generate feedback. Further work is in progr...

Comparison of Student Outcomes and Preferences in a Traditional vs. World Wide Web-Based Baccalaureate Nursing Research Course

Abstract: The purpose of this project was to compare student outcomes in an undergraduate research course taught using both World Wide Web-based distance learning technology and traditional pedagogy. Reasons given for enrolling in the traditional classroom section included the perception of increased opportunity for interaction, decreased opportunity to procrastinate, immediate feedback, and more meaningful learning activities. Reasons for selecting the Web group section included cost, convenience, and flexibility. Overall, there was no significant difference in examination scores between the two groups on the three multiple-choice examinations or for the course grades (t = -.96, P = .343). Students who reported that they were self-directed and had the ability to maintain their own pace and avoid procrastination were most suited to Web-based courses. The Web-based classes can help provide opportunities for methods of communication that are not traditionally nurtured in traditional classroom settings. Secondary benefits of the World Wide Web-based course were to increase student confidence with the computer, and introduce them to skills and opportunities they would not have had in the classroom. Additionally, over time and with practice, student's writing skills improved.

What is the purpose of this experiment? Or can students learn something from doing experiments?

Abstract: Historically there have been many claims made about the value of laboratory work in schools, yet research shows that it often achieves little meaningful learning by students. One reason, among many, for this failing is that students often do not know the ''purposes'' for these tasks. By purposes we mean the intentions the teacher has for the activity when she/he decides to use it with a particular class at a particular time. This we contrast with the ''aims'' of a laboratory activity, the often quite formalised statements about the intended endpoint of the activity that are too often the ''opening lines'' of a student laboratory report and are simply the ''expected'' specific science content knowledge outcomes—not necessarily learnt nor understood. This paper describes a unit of laboratory work which was unusual in that the teacher's purpose was to develop students' understanding about the way scientific facts are established with little expectation that they would understand the science content involved in the experiments. The unit was very successful from both a cognitive and affective perspective. An important feature was the way in which students gradually came to understand the teacher's purpose as they proceeded through the unit. fl 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. J Res Sci Teach 37: 655 - 675, 2000 The research we report here focuses on the work of a highly informed and experienced science teacher (the first author) who sought to address her concerns about laboratory work. As we explain below, the study was a collaborative one in which the teacher and the researchers worked closely together as a research team, and the voices of both teacher and researchers are presented.

Developing motivation to teach elementary science: Effect of collaborative and authentic learning practices in preservice education

Abstract: The rapid growth in knowledge over recent times has meant that teachers have to be responsive to new and ever changing demands of society. Science is among those key areas of knowledge that has experienced overwhelming growth and thus developing scientific literacy is a priority if citizens are to participate effectively in society. Failure to develop children’s interest in science will disempower a generation of children in an era when scientific knowledge is at the foundation of our culture. Unfortunately, many elementary teachers express a lack of confidence in their ability to teach science with dire consequences for the quality of teaching. This paper reports a study involving a cohort of 161 elementary preservice teachers in the third year of a four-year Bachelor of Education program enrolled in a core science education (methods) course. An instructional program that addressed five essential dimensions of meaningful learning – the knowledge base, metacognition, motivation, individual differences and context – was implemented. Quantitative and qualitative data obtained through surveys, observations and focus session reviews revealed that a learning environment based on social constructivist perspectives was effective in developing students’ conceptual and pedagogical knowledge, and most importantly enhanced students’ sense of science teaching self-efficacy. Particular initiatives that were identified by students as being of value were collaborative learning and associated strategies, reflective journal writing, and assignment tasks that adopted principles of problem based learning. While statistically significant gains in science teaching self-efficacy (p < .001) were observed overall, qualitative data enabled a more detailed analysis of the changes in motivations and goals of individual student teachers. The paper explores how the experiences developed their confidence and will to teach science in elementary school and how opportunities were provided that empowered the student teachers to be proactive seekers of knowledge and become lifelong learners.

Concept mapping in biology

Abstract: Concept mapping is an activity with numerous uses in the biology classroom. Its value in planning, teaching, revision, and assessment, and the attitudes of students and teachers towards its use, are discussed. Comments made are illustrated with excerpts from interviews with teachers and students who were involved in classroom concept mapping exercises. The use of expert maps for scoring is described, and some of the pitfalls are considered. Finally, the value of concept mapping as an aid to reflective practice is discussed.

Examining Information Processing on the World Wide Web Using Think Aloud Protocols

Abstract: Some theorists argue that the node-link design of the Web mimics human information storage and that Web use encourages individuals to process information efficiently and effectively, potentially increasing meaningful learning However, critics claim that Web navigation increases cognitive load and often produces disorientation This reduces the processing devoted to meaningful learning, and, thus the Web may potentially inhibit learning In an examination of information processing on the Web using a quantitative analysis of think aloud protocols, we found that users spend a substantial proportion of their cognitive effort orienting to the content and structure of the Web, and this effort comes at the expense of elaborative and evaluative processing Additional findings suggest that, at least during a single relatively short session, time spent in a given site does not reduce the processing devoted to orientation Finally, this paper offers a theoretically informed strategy for analyzing information proces

Facilitating a Constructivist Vision of Technology Integration among Education Faculty and Preservice Teachers.

Abstract: This article describes year two of an ongoing Goals 2000 Preservice Technology Infusion Project that sought to prepare higher education faculty, K–12 teachers, and preservice teachers to integrate technology into their instruction to facilitate a dynamic, constructivist vision of technology integration. Results indicate that project activities facilitated (1) increased proficiency in technology applications and instructional methods among all participants and (2) faculty integration of technology in education courses. In addition, higher education faculty and preservice teachers felt that project activities enabled a constructivist view of technology integration, as they now see technology as an instructional tool used to engage students in meaningful learning.

The influence of an historically oriented course on students’ content knowledge in optics evaluated by means of facets-schemes analysis

Abstract: We report on an experimental course in geometrical optics which heavily incorporates historical models accounting for light, vision, optical images, and others. The design and contents of the course were guided by previously elicited knowledge of high school students regarding optical phenomena. We utilized the course in a year-long experiment. The content knowledge of students expressed in a facets-scheme structure was compared with the same under regular instruction. We made qualitative and quantitative assessments based upon facets-scheme frequencies. Clear differences found in students’ conceptual knowledge may support the adopted rationale and teaching approach: using appropriately selected historical materials that address knowledge issues relevant for the students can significantly promote meaningful learning of the subject matter.

Chemistry lessons for universities?: a review of constructivist ideas

Abstract: Research in science education has identified a vast catalogue of misconceptions, or ‘alternative conceptions’: beliefs held by students which are at odds with orthodox science. These ideas are often held tenaciously in the face of teaching, and while many are idiosyncratic, some are found to be widely held. Alternative conceptions have been uncovered in all areas of science, and have been elicited from learners at all levels, from primary school through to graduates. University teachers need to appreciate the strength of these alternative conceptions, and the barriers they create for meaningful learning. No matter how skilfully university chemistry is explained, many students will build their new knowledge on shaky foundations. The ‘constructivist’ research programme seeks to explain the origins of students’ alternative ideas, and to use this information to inform more effective teaching approaches. According to this perspective, knowledge is constructed in the mind of the learner, and therefore learning builds on the existing ideas in the students’ minds, even if these are far from matching the (presumably ‘more scientific’) ideas the teacher had in mind. This review of the constructivist literature summarises the implications for teaching and learning chemistry in universities.

Integrating Constructivism and Learning Technologies

Abstract: This chapter seeks to demonstrate how constructivism and its associated theories (e.g., activity theory, distributed cognition, situated learning, etc.) can be used as lenses for examining the potentials of technologies to promote meaningful learning. The systematic application of technologies for instruction began after World War II. In the beginning, technologies were employed to help teachers and designers communicate more effectively with learners. In recent years, technologies have been reconceived as contexts, productivity tools, and thinking tools (Jonassen, 1997), rather than media for communicating knowledge (see Goodyear’s chapter for more on this point). How has that change transpired?

Information in learning to co-ordinate and control movements: Is there a need for specificity of practice?

Abstract: The goal of the paper is to defend the thesis that information and movement are tightly coupled and as a result specificity of training is required in order to get meaningful learning effects. This thesis will be illustrated by elaborating upon the role of informational constraints in the control and learning of one-handed catching. For instance, it is shown how learning to catch is influenced by the manipulation of various visual constraints related to predictive temporal and spatial information. In order to explain the many, and sometimes contradictory, experimental findings, different phases in the learning of information-movement coupling are proposed as being analogous to Bernstein's idea about the mastering of degrees of freedom. Further, we argue that sport psychology, and in particular motor learning, can benefit conceptually and experimentally from this framework.

Enhancing Science Literacy for All Students With Embedded Reading Instruction and Writing-to-Learn Activities

Abstract: Reading and writing in science have been frequently maligned but infrequently studied since the 1960s move toward hands-on science. Current interest in the printed-based language arts in science is supported by contemporary educational reforms and the realization that simply doing more hands-on activities may not improve meaningful learning. Students need opportunities to consolidate their science experiences and to contrast their understandings with the interpretations of the science establishment. Science literacy means that students learn about the "big" ideas of science and how to inform and persuade others about these ideas. This article attempts to sketch a substantive framework for using science reading and science writing with deaf students based on research and informed practice with hearing students.

Success and failure in school mathematics: effects of instruction and school environment.

Abstract: Given the stubborn phenomenon of many children's serious difficulties and failure in mathematical learning, the hypothesis of developmental delay, or neurocognitively based deficiency should be complemented by further explanantions of children's weaknesses and substandard performance in mathematics. One obvious explanantion is that schooling and instruction for low ability children and for children with special needs is often inadequate. The present contribution examines selected research on mathematics learning under a cognitive instructional (didactical) perspective. Constructivist learning theory, the rooting of meaningful learning in concrete modeling activities, the balancing of understanding and practice in mathematics instruction, diagnostic and adaptive teaching, computer-assisted instruction, and the role of nonmathematical stumbling-blocks are discussed as principles and factors of effective mathematics learning and teaching.

Conceptual guidelines for developing and maintaining curriculum and examination objectives: the experience of the Medical Council of Canada.

Abstract: In an era of increasing professional accountability, there is a need for both medical educators and licensing bodies to identify attributes expected of medical graduates Once these attributes are identified, educators must translate them into meaningful learning objectives Because educator

Discussion of Resources and Attributes of the Web for the Creation of Meaningful Learning Environments

Abstract: Web-based instruction (WBI) is a hypermedia-based instructional program that utilizes the attributes and resources of the World Wide Web to create a meaningful learning environment where learning i...

Distance learning in a multimedia networks project: main results

Abstract: This paper discusses a goal-oriented project called Distance Learning in Multimedia Networks (ETAKAMU) that was a part of the Finnish Multimedia Programme (FMP). The project started in February 1996 and lasted until January 1999. The project combined the efforts of Finnish telecommunication companies, content providers, publishing houses, hardware companies and educational institutions in the field of distance learning. This paper describes the background, the goals and part of the results of the ETAKAMU project as well as the project’s organisation. The main goals of the ETAKAMU project were to research, develop and evaluate open learning environments using computer networks and computers in learning. The pedagogical background of the project is based on seven qualities of meaningful learning that are applicable to lifelong learning independent of time and place. The ETAKAMU project arranged teaching experiments and user trials for various learners in different content areas and in different learning environments. Feedback and data were gathered via an investigation of how various pedagogical and technical solutions function in practice. This paper presents some pilot areas of the ETAKAMU project and main results received in the project.

Computerized Molecular Modeling: Enhancing Meaningful Chemistry Learning

Abstract: Model perception and understanding the spatial structure of organic molecules has been a source of difficulty for many chemistry students. To alleviate these problems we have introduced an innovative teaching/learning approach that employs a combination of virtual and physical models in an organic high school chemistry curriculum. We studied the effect of this approach on enhancing meaningful learning in chemistry. Experimental group students were more capable of defining and implementing new concepts in organic chemistry than their control group counterparts. When required to explain their answers, most of the experimental group students used mainly sketches of ball-and-stick models and some space-filling models. Experimental group students understood the model concept better and were more capable of applying transformation from one-dimensional to twoor three-dimensional molecular representations and vice versa.

Teaching maths through theme-based resources: Pedagogic style, `theme' and `maths' in lessons

Abstract: The design and use of curriculum resources which relate mathematics to our social and cultural reality has been valued as encouraging meaningful learning of the subject. But, how teachers apply such resources in their pedagogic practice remains a question worth investigating. This paper explores two maths teachers' ways of employing theme-based resources in their lessons. Based on the theme of art (i.e. Roman Mosaics and decorative patterns that can exemplify aspects of symmetry), a set of activities was devised and offered to teachers for use. Teachers' ways of implementing these resources were charted through a long-term ethnographic study. Classroom observation, transcripts of classroom talk and interviewing were the main tools used to seek teachers' views and to characterise teaching. Analysis of data provides a detailed look at how teachers of diverse pedagogic orientations use thematic contexts in their teaching of mathematics. Specifically, the extent to which teachers' pedagogic styles influence their ways of placing `theme' and `maths' in lessons is being explored and discussed.

The Educational Potential of Multimedia Authoring as a Part of the Earth Science Curriculum--A Case Study.

Abstract: The purpose of this study was to assess the potential of multimedia authoring, as a learning tool, using the software ASTOUND. The subjects in this study were 32 students in two Grade 12 classes. The context of the study was a multi-disciplinary environmental unit about earthquakes. Students were provided with basic background about earthquakes via laboratory experiments and field trips. At a later stage, the students did in-depth independent projects on selected topics related to earthquakes. Once completed, the students presented their projects using the multimedia software ASTOUND. The research consisted of the following stages: a pre-development phase; curriculum design phase; implementation and evaluation. The research tools included: questionnaires, interviews, observations, concept mapping, and an analysis of the multimedia presentations. The findings showed that an integration of laboratory exercises, field trips, and an independent study project, could lead to meaningful learning. However, although most of the students enjoyed using the multimedia program, there was no evidence to support the assumption that it contributed to knowledge acquisition. In fact, much of the time invested in multimedia authoring was devoted to producing decorative effects, reducing the time available for meaningful learning. © 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. J Res Sci Teach 37: 1121–1153, 2000

Proving Competence: Integrative Assessment and Web-based Portfolio System in a Dynamic Curriculum

Abstract: Since 1997, the Amsterdam Faculty of Education (EFA) has been officially recognized as a center for experimental teacher education. This paper describes the development of an assessment system and a World Wide Web-based portfolio system to help students take responsibility for their learning and their competence at three consecutive integrative assessments. The introduction provides background on the EFA and summarizes three ideas that provide the basis for the program: students need to be capable of managing change; students need to be given responsibility; and students have a considerable degree of freedom in filling out the details for their own learning processes. The central concept of meaningful learning is discussed in the second section, including authentic learning in professional education and the phases of the learning process (i.e., orientation, planning, execution, and evaluation). The third section describes program facilities in relation to these learning processes. The following program facilities are presented in detail in the fourth section: (1) orientation (the role of competency descriptions and moments of integrative assessment); (2) planning (the role of contracts); (3) execution (learning practices and the role of resources and metawork); and (4) evaluation (the role of the portfolio). (MES) Reproductions supplied by EDRS are the best that can be made from the original document. Proving Competence: Integrative Assessment and Web-based Portfolio System in a Dynamic Curriculum PERMISSION TO REPRODUCE AND DISSEMINATE THIS MATERIAL HAS BEEN GRANTED BY

Web-Based Training and Constructivism. In Brief: Fast Facts for Policy and Practice, No. 2.

Abstract: To many educators, Web-based training (WBT) is the constructivist ideal--learners can construct meaning through self-directed inquiry, guided activity, and group collaboration on the information highway, the digital library, cyberspace, or the global village. Although research on the effectiveness of WBT as a vehicle for constructivist learning is scanty, findings from other areas can be applied. For example, WBT provides full, rich information from innumerable sources, can accommodate differences among learners, allows learning activities that foster construction of meaning, and helps instructors make the change from giver of knowledge to guide, facilitator, and coach. Although the technology of WBT allows, enables, and promotes constructivist learning, WBT does not always deliver in practice. Reasons include: that some learners need new technology skills, some instructors have difficulty incorporating WBT into their teaching, some instructors find it difficult to function as a guide, and the amount of information available can be overwhelming or be out of date. Considering advantages and disadvantages, one could conclude that although enormous amounts of information can be available on the Web, it is not always accessible or usable. In addition, although WBT has the capability needed for allowing learners to construct meaningful learning, it is not always used, and it may not always be appropriate. Implications for policy and practice show that instructional design, not merely technology for its own sake, should drive the use of WBT and that learners and instructors need appropriate training to take advantage of this approach. (Contains 18

The Active Use of Concept Mapping to Promote Meaningful Learning in Biological Science.

Abstract: The focus of this work is the use of student concept mapping to promote meaningful learning in the classroom. All the studies reported were done in secondary schools and an undergraduate science course. All results and their discussion are presented within a human constructivist framework. The central question on which the research is based can be given as: How can concept mapping be used to contribute to understanding? This thesis is presented as a process of enquiry. Thus questions addressed by particular methodologies and approaches are later superseded with new questions and methods. This is consistent with a grounded approach and is part of an authentic constructivist research process. The main findings can be summarised as: 1. Quantitative methods of concept map analysis are inappropriate for promoting meaningful learning among secondary science teachers and their students. It is too time-consuming, fails to recognise the individualised nature of learning and emphasises curriculum-centred notions of ‘correctness’ - a stance at odds with the constructivist viewpoint. 2. A qualitative approach to concept map analysis has been developed in this thesis. It is shown to emphasise a contextual understanding of students’ and teachers’ conceptual ecologies in which development may indicate learning (through conceptual change) or switching (through contextual appreciation). 3. Finally, this work offers arguments against a rigid and didactic prescription of the curriculum that fails to respect the students’ perspective. A teacher-student dialogue to promote meaningful learning is likely to occur only when teachers question their own beliefs and approaches to teaching and learning. Constructivist classroom approaches can be mediated by concept mapping to emphasise the exploration and sharing of meaning rather than absolute correctness. Such approaches are likely to have an impact upon teaching quality and should be a key part of initial teacher-training and continued professional development.

Higher Order Thinking in Science Teacher Education in Israel

Abstract: This chapter describes a course called Thinking in Science that is part of a junior high school teacher preparation program in an Israeli college. The purpose of the course is to prepare prospective teachers to integrate instruction of higher order thinking skills into science topics. A qualitative evaluation study of the course examined processes that took place, documented in a portfolio. The findings show a developmental trend in four different aspects 1) students’ ideas about instruction of higher order thinking; 2) students’ opinions and attitudes regarding the course; 3) students’ experiences in developing higher order thinking as learners; and 4) experiences developing higher order thinking as teachers. Learning processes during the course took place on both a cognitive and an affective level. Students’ development went through a stage of cognitive imbalance, indicating meaningful learning. We also discuss the implications regarding the introduction of higher order thinking into science teacher preparation programs.

Rethinking teaching strategies : a framework and demonstration through augmenting Maple

Abstract: In this work, an interdisciplinary approach has been adopted for the study of • teaching strategies of an Intelligent Tutoring System, in the paradigm of multiple teaching strategies, and • the use of Computer Algebra Systems (CAS) in teaching problem solving in university mathematics. As a result, the SIMTA (Styles Implemented by Methods Tactics Actions) theoretical framework has been developed to support and sustain teaching strategies in the paradigm of multiple teaching strategies. TeLoDe (TEaching Linear Ordinary Differential Equations), is a prototype Intelligent Tutoring System, teaching the ,solution of linear second order differential equations with constant coefficients in a novel way. This novel way, which has been empirically tested, has been achieved by augmenting Maple and represents an alternative use of CASs where the human lecturer and Maple are interlocked in a symbiotic and interdependent manner. In SIMTA, the contemporary concept of teaching strategy is rethought and proposed to be viewed at two fundamental levels: • the organisational level • and the operational level. The organisational level deals with the structure of the teaching strategy whereas the operational level deals with the manifestation of that structure. In SIMTA the organisational level is represented by a triple generic structure, method, tactic(s), action(s). A method is a mechanism for structuring the subject matter (e.g. analogy, examples, generalisation, specialisation). Likewise, a tactic is a mechanism for facilitating the interaction (e.g. explicit interaction, implicit interaction). An action is a low level activity such as display this message, ask this question. In SIMTA, the exact manifestation of the above generic structures (analogies, examples, implicit interaction, explicit interaction) depends on the concept of style: different styles result in different manifestations of the same generic structures. Thus, in SIMTA the concept of multiple teaching strategies is seen as merely a collection of teaching strategies manifested under the same style. These strategies operate with the aim of offering alternative representations of the same task at hand and ensuring that the lea~er is active by activating, directing and maintaining exploration. To help demonstrate the feasibility of SIMTA, two styles, the expository style and the , guided discovery style have been formed. The expository style draws on Ausubel's theory of meaningful learning, whereas, the guided discovery style draws on Bruner's work. These styles have been implemented in TeLoDe. TeLoDe, incorporates a teaching strategy module, based on a style, and declarative knowledge. Its purpose is threefold: (i) to serve as a research tool for the SIMTA framework, (ii) to serve as a prototype, demonstrating clearly how a 'second generation' CAS which undertakes the procedural aspect of mathematics allowing the human tutor to concentrate on its conceptual aspect, could be developed, (iii) to demonstrate how Maple and human lecturers are given clear roles which are, nevertheless, interdependent in carrying out the teaching of university mathematics. Two small-scale empirical studies were carried out in order to test SIMTA and TeLoDe respectively. The first study involved lecturers whereas the second study was carried out in a classroom environment. The results found from these studies demonstrate that TeLoDe has a potential as a teaching tool for problem solving in university mathematics in a novel way.

Students Creating Their Own Thinking-Learning Contexts.

Abstract: This paper focuses on two high school students and their thoughts and feelings as they engaged in a topic of their choosing during a two-month summer action research program. Their high school astronomy teacher monitored their choice of topic and progress. The students engaged in authentic tasks and materials couched in problemoriented formats within meaningful learning contexts designed to foster thinking and learning. These students worked as a team, but pursued individual paths of inquiry using critical and imaginative thinking, and engaged in social and solitary contexts that involved them in writing, intervening, and reflecting on ideas gleaned from conversations and readings (electronic and conventional) with a university educator and an astronomer/educator during their self-directed case-based research. The process engaged students in formal skills such as written communication, literacy, logic, and calculation using an innovative electronic interactive network. Evaluations of timed writings, concept maps, notebook entries, and vee diagrams are presented and discussed. Students Creating Their Own Thinking-Learning Contexts How students create their own thinking-learning contexts when confronted with authentic problem-oriented tasks is an important issue that influences instruction and learning. Thinking-learning contexts are those mental models (conceptual frameworks) that students invoke when confronted with problem-oriented tasks that go beyond memorizing and compartmentalizing information (Alvarez, 1993). This paper details how self-directed case-based research and instruction together with collaborative interactions with teachers, students, scientists, and university educators using metacognitive tools (e.g., electronic journals, interactive concept maps, and interactive vee diagrams), and innovative technology promotes meaningful learning in ways that differ from conventional educational settings. Teachers, researchers, and students mutually define research problems. Students engage in “real-life” self-directed case research. Together, this collaboration informs practice for students, teachers, and researchers. Within this negotiated learning environment educational processes and outcomes are achieved that meet both local and national contexts for achieving meaningful learner-centered science, mathematics, and literacy goals (e.g., American Association for the Advancement of Science, 1989; International Reading Association, 1992; National Science and Technology Council, 1995; Science Council of Canada, 1984; Royal Society, 1985; NASA's Education Program, 1999-2003). Theoretical Framework Gowin's (1981) theory of educating, Ausubel's (1963, 1968) cognitive theory of meaningful reception learning, an emphasis on teachers and students becoming "communities of thinkers" (Alvarez, 1996, 1997a,b,c), and an action research constructivist epistemology provide the philosophical and theoretical background upon which this investigation was designed and through which the results were interpreted. Gowin's theory of educating focuses on the educative event and its related concepts and facts. This theory is helpful in classifying the relevant aspects of the educative event. In an educative event, teachers and learners share meanings and feelings so as to bring about a change in the human experience. This theory stresses the centrality of the learner's experience in educating. In order for meaningful learning to occur in Ausubel's theory three conditions need to be considered: (1) materials need to be concept rich, with clear relationships; (2) the learner needs to have relevant prior knowledge and experience with the concepts and propositions that are presented in the new materials; and, (3) learners need to have a meaningful learning set a disposition to link new concepts, propositions, and examples to prior knowledge and experience (see Novak, 1998). A community of thinkers is defined as an active group of students and teachers striving to learn more about a discipline by engaging in the processes of critical thinking (thinking about thinking in ways to bring about change in one’s experience) and imaginative thinking (exploring future possibilities with existing ideas, Alvarez, 1996, 1997b). The notion presented by this theoretical framework enables both students and practitioners to become better informed and knowledgeable about practices that enhance conceptual learning and meaningful understanding. To better understand how teachers, researchers, and students activate and build upon existing knowledge it is necessary to study the ways schema is activated and new knowledge is constructed. Schema (plural schemata) is a mental construction of an event, object, or an individual characteristic that can be fragmentary, inaccurate, or inconsistent. It is based upon a belief that can be applied to either physical systems or semantic meanings depicted in a text. When reading a text, the text can be seen as a series of acquisition statements within a given topic or subtopic. The notion of schema theory is that a person can comprehend a text when it is congruent with his or her belief system. Educators and researchers have suggested numerous instructional strategies to help students activate and use prior knowledge to aid comprehension. Yet, schema theory does not explain how readers modify and create new schema when presented with novel information in texts. Because texts are never completely explicit, the reader must rely on preexisting schemata to provide plausible interpretations. There is much evidence to suggest that good and poor readers do not always use schemata appropriately or are unaware of whether the information they are reading is consistent with their existing knowledge (e.g., Bartlett, 1932; Bransford, 1985). Also, there is evidence that students who do not spontaneously use schemata as they read will engage them if given explicit instructions prior to reading (e.g., Ausubel, 1960; Bransford, 1985). Action research is a paradigm that is grounded in the reality of classroom culture and under the control of teachers. Findings emanating from this type of research investigation inform teachers and guide their practice when formulating lessons and conducting future classroom research projects. Action research is defined as the acting on an event, object, problem, or an idea, by an individual or group directly involved in gathering and studying the information for themselves, and using the results for the purpose of addressing specific problems within a classroom, school, program, organization, or community (Alvarez, 1995). Action research is deliberate and results in ownership by the participants. The consequences affect participants personally. The action is the acting on an event, object, problem, or an idea for the purpose of monitoring and evaluating its course and outcomes. Research is a systematic deliberate critical inquiry of an event in order to enlighten one’s thinking, learning, and practice. This setting in motion of a strategy for the systematic study of an event that evolves from an idea or problem is the basis on which these investigations are predicated. In this project, the events that are studied take place in an educational setting and the study is conducted by student and teacher researchers in collaboration with university educators and scientists in the areas of earth and space science. This action research strategy is accomplished through a recursive cycle of (1) identifying an idea or problem area, (2) studying it by gathering data, and (3) reflecting on the data in order to make teaching and learning decisions grounded in evidence (see Appendix A Action Research Strategy, Alvarez, 1995). The focus of this action research inquiry centered on the research question: RQ1 “How do students create their own thinking-learning contexts using metacogntive tools and electronic communications when they are asked to select a topic of study of their own choosing? Within this realm of inquiry are included the effects of timed writings and their influence on schema activation and knowledge construction.

Preview of Assimilation Theory of Meaningful Learning and Retention

Abstract: Meaningful reception learning primarily involves the acquisition of new meanings from presented learning material. It requires both a meaningful learning set and the presentation of potentially meaningful material to the learner. The latter condition, in turn, presupposes (1) that the learning material itself can be nonarbitrarily (plausibly, sensibly, and nonrandomly) and nonverbatimly related to any appropriate and relevant cognitive structure (i.e., possesses “logical” meaning) and (2) that the particular learner’s cognitive structure contains relevant anchoring ideas to which the new material can be related. The interaction between potentially new meanings and relevant ideas in the learner’s cognitive structure gives rise to actual or psychological meanings. Because each learner’s cognitive structure is unique, all acquired new meanings are perforce themselves unique.