Showing papers on "Meaningful learning published in 2006"

Productive failure

Abstract: Contrary to the fairly established notion in the learning sciences that un-scaffolded processes rarely lead to meaningful learning, this study reports a hidden efficacy of such processes and a method for extracting it. Compared to scaffolded, well-structured problem-solving groups, un-scaffolded, ill-structured problem-solving groups struggled with defining and solving the problems. Their discussions were chaotic and divergent, resulting in poor group performance. However, despite failing in their problem-solving efforts, these participants outperformed their counterparts in the well-structured condition on transfer measures, suggesting a latent productivity in the failure. The study's contrasting-case design provided participants in the un-scaffolded condition with an opportunity to contrast the ill-structured problems that they had solved in groups with the well-structured problems they solved individually afterwards. This contrast facilitated a spontaneous transfer, helping them perform significantly better on the individual ill-structured problem-solving tasks subsequently. Implications of productive failure for the development of adaptive expertise are discussed.

The Origins of the Concept Mapping Tool and the Continuing Evolution of the Tool

Abstract: A research program at Cornell University that sought to study the ability of first and second grade children to acquire basic science concepts and the effect of this learning on later schooling led to the need for a new tool to describe explicit changes in children’s conceptual understanding. Concept mapping was invented in 1972 to meet this need, and subsequently numerous other uses have been found for this tool. Underlying the research program and the development of the concept mapping tool was an explicit cognitive psychology of learning and an explicit constructivist epistemology. In 1987, collaboration began between Novak and Canas and others at the Florida Institute for Human and Machine Cognition, then part of the University of West Florida. Extending the use of concept mapping to other applications such as knowledge elicitation, and the integration of concept mapping with the World Wide Web (WWW) led to the development of software that greatly enhanced the potential of concept mapping, evolving into the current version of CmapTools now used world-wide in schools, universities, corporations, and governmental and nongovernmental agencies. Differences between concept maps and other knowledge representation tools, some of which built on early concept mapping studies, are described. The integration of concept mapping software programs with the WWW and other new technologies permits a new kind of concept map-centred learning environment wherein learners build their own knowledge models, individually or collaboratively, and these can serve as a basis for life-long meaningful learning. Combined with other educational practices, use of CmapTools permits a New Model for Education, described briefly. Preliminary studies are underway to assess the possibilities of this New Model.

Three Experimental Comparisons of Learner-generated versus Author-provided Graphic Organizers

Abstract: Three Experimental Comparisons of Learner-generated versus Author-provided Graphic Organizers Andrew T. Stull (stull@psych.ucsb.edu) Richard E. Mayer (mayer@psych.ucsb.edu) Department of Psychology, University of California, Santa Barbara Santa Barbara, CA 93106-9660 USA Keywords: graphic organizer; cognitive load; generative processes; learning. Introduction Science textbooks contain numerous pictures and illustrations, many of which may offer little more than seductive details (Harp & Mayer, 1998). In contrast, graphic organizers, visual-spatial structures that represent the conceptual organization of a body of text, are advocated to facilitate learning (Robinson & Kiewra, 1995) by helping learners select, organize, and integrate information with their existing knowledge (Mayer, 1979). Two graphic organizer strategies are commonly advocated 1) providing learners with author-provided graphic organizers and 2) having learners construct their own. Paradoxically, provided graphic organizers might not engage learners in generative processing (Alvermann, 1981; Katayama & Robinson, 2000) and learner-constructed graphic organizers might be cognitively overwhelming (Kiewra, K. A., N. F. DuBois, D. Christian, & A McShane, M. Meyerhoffer, & D. Roskelley, 1991). This paradox suggests a tradeoff between promoting generative processes to facilitate meaningful learning and reducing cognitive engagement to address the learners’ limited cognitive capacity (Chandler & Sweller, 1991). This study explores the paradox by testing the hypothesis that learners using author-provided graphic organizers will perform better on knowledge transfer than learners constructing graphic organizers because they will experience lower cognitive load. Method and Results In three experiments, performance on knowledge transfer was compared for learners randomly assigned to read passages that contained either author-provided graphic organizers, learner-constructed graphic organizers, or a control (Experiment 1) or that contained either author- provided graphic organizers, learner-completed graphic organizer templates, or a control (Experiments 2 and 3). In Experiment 1, there was no main effect of graphic organizer strategy, F(2, 153) = 1.317, p = .271. This result is attributed to excessive cognitive load caused by the passage design and the learner's poor familiarity with the graphic organizer technique. In Experiments 2, passages were modified to reduce cognitive load and learners were given additional training on graphic organizer construction. There was a main effect of graphic organizer strategy, F(2,113) = 3.601, p = .030. Learners who used author-provided graphic organizers (M = 7.410, SD = 4.429) performed better than learners in the learner-completed group (M = 5.738, SD = 3.438), F(1,113) = 4.112, p = .045, d = 0.43. Experiment 3 replicated Experiment 2 but with a passage designed to further reduce cognitive load. There was a main effect of graphic organizer strategy, F(2,95) = 5.233, p = .007. Learners using author-provided graphic organizers (M = 9.182, SD = 4.066) performed better than those in the learner-completed group (M = 6.030, SD = 3.513), F(1,95) = 10.366, p = .002, d = 0.83. Discussion Author-provided graphic organizers have the potential to promote meaningful learning when they support generative processes without causing excessive cognitive load. Learner-constructed or -completed graphic organizers may cause excessive cognitive load, which limits the benefit of generative processing and inhibits learning. Increased physical activity of the learner should not be construed to indicate increased learning. References Alvermann, D. E. (1981). The compensatory effect of graphic organizers on descriptive text. Journal of Educational Research, 75, 44-48. Harp, S. F. & R. E. Mayer. (1998). How seductive details do their damage: A theory of cognitive interest in science learning. Journal of Educational Psychology, 90, 414- Katayama, A. D. & D. R. Robinson. (2000). Getting students partially involved in note-taking using graphic organizers. The Journal of Experimental Education, 68, Kiewra, K. A., N. F. DuBois, D. Christian, & A McShane, M. Meyerhoffer, and D. Roskelley. (1991). Note-taking functions and techniques. Journal of Educational Psychology, 83, 240-245. Mayer, R. E. (1979). Can advance organizers influence meaningful learning? Review of Educational Research, Robinson, D. H. & K. A. Kiewra. (1995). Visual argument: Graphic organizers are superior to outlines in improving learning from text. Journal of Educational Psychology, Sweller, J. & Chandler, P. (1991). Evidence for cognitive load theory. Cognition and Instruction, 8, 351-362.

An empirical assessment of pedagogical usability criteria for digital learning material with elementary school students

Abstract: This paper presents the pedagogical usability criteria for evaluating the digital learning material. Pedagogical aspects of designing or using digital learning material are much less frequently studied than technical ones. Further, there are relatively few inventories measuring subjective end-user satisfaction with the pedagogical aspects of digital learning material and not a single inventory has undergone a rigorous process of empirical psychometric testing. They include the following components: 1. Learner control, 2. Learner activity, 3. Cooperative/Collaborative learning, 4. Goal orientation, 5. Applicability, 6. Added value, 7. Motivation, 8. Valuation of previous knowledge, 9. Flexibility and 10. Feedback. The pedagogical usability criteria have been operationalized into an on-line Likert -scale self-rating Pedagogically Meaningful Learning Questionnaire (PMLQ) that has 56 items. In the PMLQ, separate items have been developed to measure the usability of the learning management system (LMS) and the learning material (LM). When evaluating the usability of a LMS, it is possible in the pedagogical context to evaluate the kind of learning material it enables the users to produce. Evaluation of the usability of a LM is based on a fact that the learning content is based on a certain learning goal or goals. The criteria of pedagogical usability presented here have undergone two-step psychometric testing process using empirical samples of 5th and 6th grade elementary school students (n = 66 and n = 74). Students evaluated one LMS and four LM’s with PMLQ. Results supported the existence of theoretical dimensions of the criteria. The PMLQ was able to capture differences in the pedagogical usability profiles of the learning modules. Generalizability of the pedagogical usability criteria to other domains is limited by the small sample size, the small age range of respondents’ and the small number of learning material evaluated. However, empirical studies that aim at evaluating a more representative set of learning material in different domains targeted for both adolescent and adult learners are currently conducted.

Teaching medical students using role play: Twelve tips for successful role plays

Abstract: Engaging students in role play promotes active learning. Planned and structured role plays can be used to deliver components of the curriculum in clinical rotations of a medical programme. Role plays are most effective if learning objectives are defined, and the cases are challenging. All students should be involved and ground rules should be set. Allow adequate time for the role play, feedback and reflection. Let the students enjoy themselves. This paper provides 12 tips to create a meaningful learning experience for students using role play.

Toward meaningful learning in undergraduate medical education using concept maps in a PBL pathophysiology course

Abstract: Problem-based learning (PBL) is now an established method in undergraduate medical education that aims to develop reasoning skills based on clinical problems. More recently, the use of concept mapping in medical education aims to improve meaningful learning. At the New University of Lisbon, we have been using PBL as a major educational method in a pathophysiology course. In 2003–2004, we started to use Inspiration, a computer-based concept mapping tool, with a single tutorial PBL group. A total of 36 maps were constructed related to short cases, already used in the PBL course, in which a certain number of key nodes were hidden to allow the students to fill in the gaps. The results obtained appear to indicate that the use of concept maps stimulated meaningful learning within a PBL course.

Concept mapping: an effective, active teaching-learning method.

Abstract: Nurse educators, under pressure to prepare graduates who are able to think critically and solve problems in a variety of clinical practice settings, require active teaching strategies to promote meaningful learning, instead of relying on traditional methods that promote rote memorization. A review of the current state of the science with regard to concept mapping demonstrates that this teaching-learning method assists nurse educators to prepare graduates to think critically in the complex health care environment. However, further research is needed to determine the effectiveness of concept mapping on the graduate's performance on the NCLEX exam and on critical thinking and prioritization skills in the clinical environment.

Applying an authentic, dynamic learning environment in real world business

Abstract: This paper describes a dynamic computer-based business learning environment and the results from applying it in a real-world business organization. We argue for using learning tools, which not only provide realistic and complex models of reality, but are also are authentic, facilitate continuous problem solving and meaningful learning, and embed learning in social experience. We describe a continuously processed business simulation game, which differs from the majority of business games in the way it is processed. Two company in-house training sessions are then introduced. In these sessions the learning environment was configured to describe the real-world environment of the case company. The empirical part of the paper analyses the findings from these in-house training sessions. We conclude that dynamicity and interactivity of the business learning tool are valuable characteristics if we want to be able to authentically represent the complex, causal, time-bound nature of business organizations.

Engaged learning with emerging technologies

Abstract: Foreword by Gerry Stahl Preface About the Contributors Chapter 1-Modeling for meaningful learning David H. Jonassen and Johannes Strobel.- Chapter 2-Engaged learning: Making learning an authentic experience David Hung, Tan Seng Chee and Koh Thiam Seng.- Chapter 3-The contributing student: Learners as co-developers of learning resources for reuse in web environments Betty Collis and Jef Moonen.- Chapter 4-Situated learning in the process of work Reinhard Oppermann and Marcus Specht.- Chapter 5-Education in the knowledge age - Engaging learners through knowledge building Seng Chee Tan, David Hung and Marlene Scardamalia.- Chapter 6-Engaging learners through intuitive interfaces John G Hedberg and Susan Metros.- Chapter 7-Learning science through online threaded discourse Allan H.K. Yuen.- Chapter 8-Engage, empower, enable: Developing a shared vision for technology in education Geoff Romeo.- Chapter 9-Engagement with ideas and understanding: An essential for effective learning in the electronic age Alan Pritchard.- Chapter 10-Creating ICT-enriched learner-centred environments: Myths, gaps and challenges Kar Tin Lee.- Chapter 11-Cybergogy for engaged learning: A framework for creating learner engagement through information and communication technology Minjuan Wang and Myunghee Kang.- Chapter 12-Engaging learners through continuous online assessment Cathy Gunn.- Index

Mind maps as active learning tools

Abstract: Active learning has been described by Bonwell and Eison [2] as an instructional technique that engages students in meaningful learning activities such as dialog, debate, writing, and problem solving, as well as higher-order thinking, e.g., analysis, synthesis, evaluation. Utilization of active learning is one of Chickering and Gamson's "Seven Principles for Good Practice" [5] for undergraduate teaching. Prince [23] describes several forms of active learning---collaborative learning, cooperative learning, and problem-based learning---in his review of active learning techniques. His research found support for all forms of active learning examined. The authors are investigating other forms of active learning aimed at improving critical thinking, problem-solving, and collaboration skills but which also use visual learning/thinking methods.

Modeling for Meaningful Learning

Abstract: In the first part of the chapter, we argue that the goal of formal education should be meaningful learning. Meaningful learning is necessarily social, collaborative, intentional, authentic, and active. The result of meaningful learning lies in its cognitive residue, the learner’ mental model.

Validation of learning style measures: implications for medical education practice.

Abstract: BACKGROUND It is unclear which learners would most benefit from the more individualised, student-structured, interactive approaches characteristic of problem-based and computer-assisted learning. The validity of learning style measures is uncertain, and there is no unifying learning style construct identified to predict such learners. OBJECTIVE This study was conducted to validate learning style constructs and to identify the learners most likely to benefit from problem-based and computer-assisted curricula. METHODS Using a cross-sectional design, 3 established learning style inventories were administered to 97 post-Year 2 medical students. Cognitive personality was measured by the Group Embedded Figures Test, information processing by the Learning Styles Inventory, and instructional preference by the Learning Preference Inventory. The 11 subscales from the 3 inventories were factor-analysed to identify common learning constructs and to verify construct validity. Concurrent validity was determined by intercorrelations of the 11 subscales. RESULTS A total of 94 pre-clinical medical students completed all 3 inventories. Five meaningful learning style constructs were derived from the 11 subscales: student- versus teacher-structured learning; concrete versus abstract learning; passive versus active learning; individual versus group learning, and field-dependence versus field-independence. The concurrent validity of 10 of 11 subscales was supported by correlation analysis. Medical students most likely to thrive in a problem-based or computer-assisted learning environment would be expected to score highly on abstract, active and individual learning constructs and would be more field-independent. CONCLUSIONS Learning style measures were validated in a medical student population and learning constructs were established for identifying learners who would most likely benefit from a problem-based or computer-assisted curriculum.

Meaningful learning and the executive functions of the brain

Abstract: Research on the executive functions of the brain supports a constructivist, experiential approach to teaching and learning.

Situated learning in an Australian surf club

Abstract: The article examines learning and identity formation for young people in an Australian surf club. Drawing on Lave and Wenger's notion of situated learning, it identifies how membership in the surf club from an early age involves highly significant and meaningful learning and identity formation, where learning is co-constructed with other members as a process of negotiating meaning and knowledge. It identifies how membership in the surf club and participation in its practices over time provides the participants with access to resources for understanding and cultural knowledge through growing involvement in practice. In doing so it suggests that there is a need to view physical learning as a complex process that is inseparable from social and cultural ‘webs of experience’.

The Challenge of Content Creation to Facilitate Personalized E-Learning Experiences

Abstract: The runtime creation of pedagogically coherent learning content for an individual learner’s needs and preferences is a considerable challenge By selecting and combining appropriate learning assets into a new learning object such needs and preferences may be accounted for However, to assure coherence these objects should be consumed within pedagogically meaningful learning activity structures There are a number of key aspects that need to be addressed in order to perform this kind of personalization, such as the appropriate modelling of the learner’s needs and preferences, representation of pedagogical strategies, representation of learning designs and assets as well as the runtime reconciliation of these elements to produce effective and coherent learning activities Moreover, preferences that teachers may have about the learner’s studies should also be considered iClass, an Integrated Project, funded by the European Commission under the auspices of the IST FP6, addresses this challenge with an innovative and ambitious suite of eLearning services This paper introduces iClass and its objectives

The Need to Change Pedagogies in Science and Technology Subjects: A European Perspective.

Abstract: This paper evolves out of a consultancy that was carried out with the European Commission over a two year period between 2001 and 2003. A working group, set within the European Commission and comprising representatives from 15 member states, as well as associated and accession countries, stakeholders and social partners involved in maths, science and technology education, was formed. Its remit was to identify good practice in maths, science and technology education across Europe and to make recommendations for policy makers in the area. One important theme which emerged during the analysis of good practice was the need to develop the type of pedagogies which would encourage the active involvement of pupils in authentic and meaningful learning experiences within these subject domains. A series of questions relating specifically to this area was therefore incorporated into the second phase of the investigation and sent out to all participating countries. Qualitative analysis of these questionnaires was carried out. Using the results of these analyses, along with information from discussions, this paper considers the situation in Europe in respect of the introduction of what are essentially social constructivist pedagogies in the field of technology and science education. It explores some of the attempts which have been made to implement such pedagogies and more importantly the barriers to their introduction which have been identified in most countries across Europe. A consideration of research literature in the field is then used to promote the argument that teacher beliefs or theories are a crucial factor in preventing change. The role of these theories in presenting barriers to change are discussed and the implications for both policy makers and for initial teacher education are analysed.

Assessment preferences, learning orientations, and learning strategies of pre‐service and in‐service teachers

Abstract: The importance of developing effective learning strategies and motivational beliefs has been widely acknowledged as a way of meeting the demand to acquire lifelong learning capabilities for successful functioning as professionals in the ‘information age’. The study reported in this paper examined the learning orientations and strategies of prospective teachers as well as their assessment preferences and compared them with those of in‐service teachers. The Motivated Learning Strategies Questionnaire (MSLQ) and the Assessment Preferences Inventory (API) were used to test the hypothesis that in‐service teachers will exhibit a deeper approach to learning and assessment due to their constant engagement in meaningful learning experiences. The results confirmed the hypothesis and their implications for teacher education programmes were then discussed.

Student Views of Concept Mapping Use in Introductory Tertiary Biology Classes

Abstract: Introductory tertiary level science classes (i.e., at the university or post-compulsory school level) including those for biology face increasing diversity in intake. Previous research has indicated university level teachers assume a certain level of prior knowledge which may or may not be possessed by such students. This report focuses on the use of concept mapping in introductory biology tutorial classes. The research findings suggest that the students found the use of concept mapping enjoyable and that it can enhance meaningful learning for topics that require students to link concepts.

The Use of History of Mechanics in Teaching Motion and Force Units

Abstract: This paper reports a 4-month study that investigated the effectiveness of curriculum materials incorporating the history of science (HOS) on learning science, understanding the nature of science (NOS), and students’ interest in science. With regards to these objectives, three different class contexts were developed with three main types of information in history of science. In the first class context, the similarities between students’ alternative ideas and scientific concepts from the HOS were considered in developing teaching materials. In the second class context, the teacher developed discussion sessions on the ways scientists produce scientific knowledge. In the third class context, short stories about scientists’ personal lives were used without connection to the concepts of science or NOS. Ninety-one eighth-grade students were randomly assigned to four classes taught by the same science teacher. The concepts in the motion unit and in the force unit were taught. Three of the four classrooms were taught using the contexts provided by the HOS while the fourth class was taught in the same way that the teacher had used in previous years. The effects on student meaningful learning, perceptions of the NOS, and interest in science were evaluated at the beginning, at the middle, and at the end of the study to compare differences between historical class contexts and the Traditional Class. Results of analysis showed that the changes in meaningful learning scores for the first class context were higher than other classes but the differences between classes were not significant. The HOS affected student perceptions of the scientific methods and the role of inference in the process of science. Stories from scientists’ personal lives consistently stimulated student interest in science, while discussions of scientific methods without these stories decreased student interest. The positive effects of stories relating scientist’ personal life on student interest in science has major importance for the teaching of science. This research also helps to clarify different class contexts which can be provided with different types and uses of historical information.

Investigating science learning for rural elementary school teachers in a professional‐development project through three distance‐education strategies

Abstract: Distance education is a significant topic of discussion within institutions at all levels of education. It is not only significant in terms of finances and student enrollment but also in terms of meaningful learning. The purpose of this study was to determine the relative effectiveness of three distance-education strategies for enhancing the science learning of 94 Midwestern elementary-school teachers participating in a 5-year professional-development project. The three distance-education strategies studied were interactive television with all presenters live in real time (live), interactive television with live discussions wrapped around videotaped presentations (video), and asynchronous, Web-based sessions with streamed videotaped presentations supported by interaction through discussion boards (Web). A repeated measures design was used to analyze the science learning and attitudes of the study participants. Analysis of variance of participants' postsession science scores yielded differences (p < 0.05) on multiple-choice and constructed-response science subscales. Participants in the live mode outperformed participants in the Web and video modes on all three assessment types (multiple choice, constructed response, and vignettes). Participants in the Web mode outperformed participants in the video mode on multiple choice and constructed response. © 2006 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Res Sci Teach 43: 1019–1039, 2006

Promises and Pitfalls of Learning Objects

Abstract: Learning objects (LOs), generally understood as digital learning resources shared through the Internet and reused in multiple learning contexts, have aroused worldwide enthusiasm in the field of educational technology during the last years. Although LOs and LO systems offer tremendous possibilities to improve educational practices, there are many theoretical problems and practical shortcomings which are usually neglected. In this article we introduce the promises of cost‐effectiveness, reusability, modifiability and adaptability associated with LOs. Then we critically look at the problems underlying the LO approach, and provide our own alternative interpretation of LOs as useful elements of meaningful learning environments. Because of their flexible nature, LOs and LO systems can be used to support a variety of learning theories and instructional strategies—both sophisticated and reductionist ones (Parrish, 2004). LOs per se are not necessarily pedagogically functional or non‐functional, but their pedagog...

Content knowledge for mathematics teaching: the case of reasoning and proving 1

Abstract: In this paper, we discuss issues of content knowledge that is important for mathematics teaching. Specifically, we present a framework for the content knowledge of “reasoning and proving” that is important for teaching elementary school mathematics, and we consider how this knowledge can be effectively promoted in mathematics courses for preservice elementary school teachers. We argue that these courses need to place emphasis on the use of a special category of tasks that we call “teaching-related mathematics tasks.” These are mathematics tasks that are connected to teaching, and have a dual purpose: (1) to foster teacher learning of mathematics that is important for teaching, and (2) to help teachers see how this mathematics relates to teaching. We discuss and illustrate the nature of these tasks. Over the past two decades an extensive body of research has focused on teachers’ content knowledge (Shulman, 1986), studying its relationship with effective teaching. It is now well documented in the literature that teachers’ ability to teach mathematics depends on their mathematics content knowledge (e.g., Ma, 1999). Nevertheless, it is still unclear what teachers need to know about each mathematical topic or activity they teach (Ball et al., 2001), and also how this knowledge can be effectively promoted in mathematics teacher preparation programs. In this paper, we take a step toward addressing this problem, focusing on the activity of reasoning and proving (RP). Specifically, we: (1) present a framework for the content knowledge of RP that is important for elementary mathematics teaching; and (2) consider how this knowledge can be effectively promoted in mathematics courses for preservice elementary school teachers, focusing on the nature of tasks used in these courses. BACKGROUND As background for the paper, we (1) elaborate on the importance of teachers’ content knowledge of RP, (2) present our conceptualization of RP, and (3) examine an episode from third grade to illustrate what RP might look like at the elementary school (grades K through 6) and to see what is important for elementary school teachers to know about RP in order to cultivate this activity in their classrooms. Importance of teachers’ content knowledge of reasoning and proving There is growing appreciation of the idea that doing and knowing mathematics is a sense-making activity, that is, activity characterized by meaningful learning. There is also appreciation of the intimate relation between sense making and the activity 1 The two authors had an equal contribution in writing this paper. We wish to thank Alan

Creating a Classroom Community of Young Scientists

Abstract: Part 1. Getting Started Introduction 1.1 Beginning the journey 1.2 Philosophy and theoretical framework 1.3 Goals and emphases 1.4 How to use this book 1.5 Some questions to consider 1.6 Two quotes to think about 2 Initial Explorations 2.1 Pond water investigation 2.2 Investigating earthworms 2.3 Nature walk 2.4 Moon study 2.5 Exploring light, lenses, and mirrors 2.6 Summary Part II. Teaching Science for Children's Meaningful Learning 3 Nature of Science 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Views of science: Scientists and thinkers about science 3.3 Activities 3.4 Examples of children's ideas 3.5 Summary 4 Children's Learning and Sense-Making 4.1 Constructivism 4.2 Social constructivism 4.3 Contexts of meaning 4.4 Categorization 4.5 Play 4.6 Complex learning 4.7 Summary of implications for teaching 5 Children's Talk 5.1 The traditional approach to classroom discussions 5.2 An alternative approach to classroom discussions 5.3 An example of a classroom argument 5.4 Extending our understandings of how to work with children's discussions 6 Teaching and Learning through Inquiry 6.1 Types of questions and inquiry 6.2 Patterns of inquiry in the classroom 6.3 A cycle of inquiry 6.4 Observational studies 6.5 Experimental studies 6.6 Inquiry and learning 7 Assessing Children's Learning, Thinking, and Talk 7.1 Establishing goals 7.2 Some necessary background 7.3 The purpose of assessment 7.4 Some approaches to assessment 7.5 Observations and performance assessment 7.6 What to look for and keeping track 7.7 Additional issues of assessment as driven by curricular documents and national standards 7.8 A final activity 8 Planning and Implementing Instruction 8.1 Some basic guidelines and principles to consider 8.2 How and where to start 8.3 A simple model of planning - E-7 8.4 Instructional plans 8.5 Alternative sequencing for a restricted curriculum situation 8.6 Taking into account children's ability levels (...but not selling them short!) 8.7 Teaching and working with children: Implementing instruction 8.8 Some example unit topics and themes 8.9 Yearly planning 9 Classroom as Community of Young Scientists 9.1 Developing the classroom as a community of learners, inquirers, and young scientists 9.2 Establishing a classroom community 9.3 Setting up your classroom 9.4 Working with children 9.5 Working with parents and the extended community 6.6 Working with yourself 10 Reflective Practice 10.1 Background to professional thinking and learning 10.2 An overview of reflection 10.3 Working with yourself 10.4 The focus of reflection 10.5 Reflection examples and activities 10.6 Dilemmas 11 Where to Go From Here: Participating in the Professional Community 11.1 Participating in the professional community 11.2 Continuing to learn about science 11.3 Continuing your professional development Part III. Appendices A Safety A.1 Physical safety A.2 Personal, psychological, and social safety B United States Science Education Standards C Canadian Science Education Standards D Learning and Teaching for Complexity D.1 Systems D.2 Patterns, metapatterns, and other broadly connecting concepts D.3 Teaching and learning for complex understandings E More On Planning - Curriculum Units E.1 More planning tools E.2 Sample curriculum unit ideas F Field Studies F.1 Types of field studies F.2 Planning an extended field study F.3 Summary G Sample Activities G.1 Structures G.2 Marble collisions G.3 Pendulums G.4 Balancing act G.5 Batteries and bulbs G.6 Construct a boat to hold a specific cargo G.7 Forest or open field study G.8 Exploring metapatterns G.9 Challengers - Jumping into what scientists experience H Data Collection and Analysis Techniques H.1 Background H.2 Collecting data H.3 Analyzing data H.4 Formulas and conversions H.5 Summary I Science Techniques I.1 Collecting and keeping organisms I.2 Science techniques and procedures I.3 Science equipment and measurement J Technology J.1 Computers and the Internet J.2 Photography J.3 Video J.4 Audio J.5 Laboratory probeware J.6 Other science equipment K Equipment, Supplies, and Materials K.1 Basic science equipment and materials for the classroom K.2 Sources of science supplies and equipment L Professional Resources L.1 Professional organizations L.2 Science-related organizations L.3 Internet resources by science topic or resource L.4 Teacher professional journals and children's magazines L.5 Books for teachers

Approaches to learning and learning values: an investigation of adult learners in Malaysia

Abstract: This research was inspired by a pressing question which formed the main aim of the current study--What factors contribute to the differential academic performance of adult learners in the formal setting in Malaysia? It is hoped that by addressing this question, insights obtained may be useful for the Malaysian policy makers in attempting to implement the government's initiative--Malaysia Vision 2020. The current literature informs that in order to achieve the desired goals, Malaysian adult learners, must now more than ever be conscious of the effect of learning values and approaches to learning. Hence, there is a need to develop a more holistic understanding of the interrelated dynamics between learning values and approaches to learning. The current study adopts a transdisciplinary, etic/emic approach, using two culturally sensitive questionnaires, Revised Study Process Questionnaires-2 Factors Malaysia (RSPQ- 2FM) and Learning Values Survey (LVS) on 858 Malay and Chinese adult learners in Malaysia. The study found the significant others can have substantial influence on the 'face value' for both Malay and Chinese adult learners generally, but was more pronounced for the Malay adult learners. This in turn may encourage Malay adult learners to submit to pressure from others in influencing how they perceive the importance of learning and motivation in learning. Because Malay adult learners are constantly driven by external factors to compete with other cultural groups in education or economic achievement, they may tend to avoid challenging tasks such as deeper approaches to learning in order to rapidly achieve their immediate learning goals. Engaging with deep approaches and meaningful learning are effortful and the pressure to save face may result in the likelihood of adopting surface approaches. This coupled with the finding that they do not appreciate the middle way principles as much as the Chinese adult learners suggest that they may be less flexible and/or pragmatic learners. The findings suggest that practice of middle way principles (such as 'Willing to compromise one's own values to suit the situation/issues when I learn') can indeed enhance certain positive learning approaches which implies that Malay adult learners may be disadvantaged in the learning settings due to their lack of appreciation of the middle way principles. It is also interesting to find that Malay adult learners appreciate time factor more than their Chinese counterparts when engaging with Deep Approaches to learning. In contrast, the middle way principle practiced as a way of life by the Chinese culture has made Chinese adult learners more malleable, resulting in a relatively less face conscious cultural group. Being less externally driven and less restrictive, Chinese adult learners are more likely to adopt deep approaches to enhance meaningful learning. In addition, the Chinese culturally ingrained learning approach, Understand and Memorization was found to be more likely to produce positive learning outcome. Unlike their Malay counterparts, Chinese adult learners view work experiences more essential in helping them to engage with Deep Approaches to learning. The above findings are novel and add to previous studies on approaches to learning by introducing the effect of learning values. While previous research has referred to cultural variable in learning, they have not sufficiently explored the effect of culture. Learning values is one significant cultural variable that is considered in the study. The findings underpin the different emphasis placed by the two cultural groups as they engage with professional development activities. It is hoped that by identifying values pertinent to learning in this competitive globalized economy, the study has provided insights for Malaysian policy makers to develop holistic future education plans to assist in achieving Malaysian Vision 2020. Insights gained can also support plans where Malay can be encouraged to become competent global leaders and workers, capable of competing in this knowledge economy.

High School Teachers' Course Designs and Their Professional Knowledge of Online Teaching

Abstract: This paper deals with the process of expanding the virtual secondary education school network, aiming to provide daily basis, online teaching. The context of this research is the ESR funded Eastern Finland Educational Network Project, which is a network of 36 high schools provid- ing courses via web-based learning environments. The project is a shared activity between teachers and researchers. The aim of the present study is to investigate teachers' technological pedagogical content knowledge by finding out what kind of pedagogical solutions the teachers use while design- ing and carrying out online teaching. In this study thirteen online courses were analysed and based on the analysis, four different course design patterns were found. The most general approach in course designs seems to be teacher centred, focusing on well guided individual learning processes. There seems to be need for development of teacher technological pedagogical content knowledge, to support approaches of more collaborative course designs.

Enriching Arithmetic Learning by Promoting Relational Thinking

Abstract: Following the Early Algebra proposal of integrating algebraic thinking in elementary mathematics, we focus our attention on the development of relational thinking within arithmetic contexts. This thinking encourages exploring relations between numbers and between operations promoting a meaningful learning of Arithmetic and the development of a good foundation for the formal study of Algebra. In this document we present data from a study of third grade students who developed relational thinking in the context of discussions about number sentences.

Perceptions of Web-mediated Peer Assessment

Abstract: Previous studies have revealed that peer pressure is a factor in negative student perceptions of peer assessment. In this study, a web-mediated system was utilized to facilitate peer assessment and provide anonymity minimizing the impact of peer pressure. Post-assessment survey results indicated that students generally accepted this method and recognized its' value in promoting critical learning. The merits of anonymity and instant feedback were acknowledged in student responses. Introduction Peer assessment has become one of the most common strategies for shifting students' roles in learning from passively observing to actively participating in higher education in the past two decades. Peer assessment is a process in which students evaluate the achievement or performance of others of similar status (Topping, Smith, Swanson, & Elliot, 2000). Peer assessment has been "viewed as having significant pedagogic value" (Patti, 2002). Peer assessment's benefits in promoting higher order thinking and supporting cooperative learning have been established. Pope (2001) suggested that peer assessment stimulates student motivation and encourages deeper learning. Freeman (1995) noted that studying the marking criteria and evaluating peers' work could improve students' awareness of their own work and encourage deeper understanding. Topping (1998), after reviewing 109 articles focusing on peer assessment, confirmed that peer assessment yields cognitive benefits for both assessors and assessees in multiple ways. Those "benefits might accrue before, during and after" the process. He further concluded that feedback yielded from this process has a positive impact on students' grades and subjective perceptions. Researchers have generally agreed that peer assessment promotes student autonomy and facilitates meaningful learning (Freeman, 1995; Pope, 2001). However, despite this widespread acceptance of this process, there were only a very limited number of publications in literature exploring how students view this method (Hanrahan & Isaacs, 2001). In general, the literature reveals that student perceptions towards peer assessment are twofold: On one hand, students acknowledge and recognize the merits of peer assessment; on the other hand, a number of diverse reasons caused student negative or unsure feelings. Gatfield (1999) utilized peer assessment in a compulsory international marketing management course. After peer assessment, students were asked to respond to a survey regarding their attitudes towards peer assessment. The analysis of the survey was divided into three parts. The first part considered students' perceptions of the suitability of the peer assessment method in that course. The second part dealt with the degree of student satisfaction. The third part solicited student suggestions for improvement of the process. Data analysis indicated that students in general held an approximate level of agreement and showed an acceptance of the method of peer assessment. Data also revealed that overall there was a high level of student satisfaction. Students' suggestions for improvement were for tutors to offer more consultation time and to allocate more time in tutorials to assist group work. This finding of positive student attitudes was also supported by Stefani's study (1994). Almost all the participants in his study indicated that peer assessment made them think more and 85% students said that it made them learn more than traditional assessments of their work. In their study, Hanrahan and Isaacs (2001) presented an analysis of the views of a large number of students (233) who had just experienced self- and peer-feedback as part of one of their subjects. The data indicated that students felt that they benefited from the intervention. Although most students enjoy peer assessment and understand its values, not all the experiences associated with peer assessment were favorable. …