Showing papers on "Metropolitan area published in 1976"

Are There Returns to Scale in City Size

Abstract: A question central to the issue of optimal city size is whether scale economies exist in urban production. Over a third of all Americans who currently live in metropolitan areas live in one of the dozen largest. If it can be shown that these areas have a significant production advantage over the remaining ones, then welfare analysis could be applied to learn whether the extra output produced in these metropolitan areas outweighs the drawbacks of 'their greater disamenities. Economists have long recognized that wages and output per worker in large cities exceed those in smaller ones (Alonso, 1970; Fuchs, 1967; Hoch, 1972; and Izraeli, 1973). Workers have apparently known about this too, and as a result the size distribution of cities has been shifting in favor of the largest cities for much of the past century. But before one can pass welfare judgments about this trend it is necessary to have in hand an empirically-based theory of production and income in urban areas and of the role, if any, played by city size. Our main concern is to develop such a theory -to explain variation in worker incomes across a set of metropolitan areas. We do this for 58 areas using data for 1967. As a part of the study capital stock data were estimated for each of the areas. A marginal productivity theory of factor incomes is assumed and justified empirically. Two-thirds of the variation in gross metropolitan income per worker is explained. We found that the largest SMSAs-those with a population of two million or more had a return to factors 8% higher than the remaining SMSAs. The reason for this was not increasing returns to scale in production -we observed constant returns both across the entire sample and within several smaller city/larger city partitionings of the sample. Rather, there is an "agglomeration effect" that seems to obtain for areas of more than two million -a change in the constant term causing a shift in the production function. The reason for this effect, apparently, is that economies exist in transport and communication in the very largest cities with the result that the benefits from agglomeration more than offset congestion costs. A marginal productivity theory of distribution in cities is developed briefly in the next section. This is followed by an empirical section which describes the data and relates the findings.

Residential Mobility, Migration and Metropolitan Change.

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The bart experience--what have we learned?

Abstract: The Bay Area Rapid Transit system (BART) has many characteristics of a huge social experiment—in vivo, as it were. Key element in a bold scheme to structure the future of the San Francisco region, BART was to stem the much-feared decline of the older metropolitan centers, while helping to give coherent order to the exploding suburbs. By offering a superior alternative to the automobile, BART was to make for congestion-free commuting. If successful, it would provide a model for rationalizing transportation and metropolitan development elsewhere.

Political Change in the Metropolis

Abstract: Preface Part One - Metropolitan Cities in the 21st Century Chapter 1- 21st Century Cities and Challenge of Urban Governance Chapter 2- The Emergence of Metropolitan America Part Two- The Ethnic and Racial Base of Politics Chapter 3- Ethnic-Based Politics in the City Chapter 4- Machine Politics and Reform Part Three- Politics in the Contemporary City Chapter 5- The City as a Place of Opportunity: The Politics of Racial and Social Change Chapter 6- The City as a Place of Opportunity: The Changing Urban Political Economy Chapter 7- Community Power and Leadership Part Four- Suburbia and the Multicentered Metropolis Chapter 8- Urban Sprawl Chapter 9- Metropolitan Government Chapter 10- The New Regionalism: Taking "Metropolitan Governance Without Government" Seriously Part Five- Toward an Urban Policy Chapter 11- National Urban Policy Chapter 12- Political Change in the Metropolis of the Future Credits Index

Understanding Central City Hardship

Abstract: There is a danger that the current, and justifiable, preoccupation with New York City finances by observers of the urban scene will cause them to overgeneralize. New York's fiscal ills have been chronicled in depth and classified in full. But New York's problems are not those of every city. For urban policy makers, the cardinal fact about United States cities is that they are different. The analysis in this article is part of an ongoing examination of the problems and conditions of local governments in the nation's largest metropolitan areas. We have focused here on central cities. Our primary interest is in two characteristics of these governments: (X) the seriousness of the social and economic problems which they face, and (2) the extent of what might be called their political isolation as indicated by the population size of central cities in relation to the population of the metropolitan area of which they are a part. Such analysis is important as an indication of both the extent of, and need for, fiscal and political arrangements for burden spreading in metropolitan areas. If a particular central city is nearly as well or better off than its suburbs, techniques to spread burdens within that metropolitan area will be less essential than in cases where the central city faces significant economic and social hardship relative to its suburbs and where it accounts for a relatiVely small proportion of the total population of its metropolitan area. The latter cases are the ones we need to look at most closely in seeking relief measures for central cities.

Crime Rates of American Cities in an Ecological Context

Abstract: Given a city that contains only a small proportion of the residents in the larger ecological community, the conventional crime rate for that city could be high merely because the denominator of the rate underestimates the potential number of victims or offenders. Accordingly, there is a basis for anticipating a direct relationship among cities between (1) community/city population size rations and (2) rates for particular types of crimes. The relationship does hold for many American cities when Urbanized Areas (UAs) or Standard Metropolitan Statistical Areas (SMSAs) are taken as approximations of communities; but it holds only for singular cities, each of which is the only central city in a SMSA. The argument of this paper is that singular cities are much more homogeneous as regards dominance within the community than are other types of cities, and that dominance determines the extent to which a city will attract nonresident participants in crimes. In any case, the findings cast doubts on the use of conventional crime rates for cities in testing theories.

Perceived Quality of Residential Environments

Abstract: Environmental planners and designers have given more attention to the residential environment than to any of the systems that interact to make up the metropolitan area. This attention is understandable. The residential environment is viewed as the place where an individual can relate himself socially and functionally to the complex world around him. It is considered to be richly diverse, both physically and socially, and constantly changing in terms of an aging landscape and a mobile population. And by design and redesign, it offers planners the opportunity to improve the quality of the physical surroundings and, in a very direct way, the livability of metropolitan area residents.

Transport realities and planning policy

Abstract: Most attempts at striking a balance between private and public transport are based on the allocation of the resources of road space and finance. The book instead uses a "consumers" approach to focus on that component of policy which is concerned with providing all members of the community with the means of meeting their daily travel needs. This approach is discussed in the following chapters: (1) adults travel in five areas; (2) teenagers travel in five areas; (3) junior schoolchildrens travel in five areas; (4) mobility and accessibility in the outer metropolitan area; (5) personal mobility: young women with children and pensioners; (6) travel patterns of young women with children; (7) travel patterns of pensioners; (8) influence of area, and (9) summary and conclusions. /TRRL/

Urban Sweden : changes in the distribution of population

Abstract: In the 1960s and the early 1970s a lively discussion took place in Sweden about the role of the metropolitan areas in the urbanization process The debate disclosed our limited knowledge of the spa

The Role of Real Estate Agents as Information Mediators in two American Cities

Abstract: Real estate salespersons in the San Fran- cisco-Oakland metropolitan area and in Minneapolis and its suburbs were surveyed in order to document the existence of any spatial bias the recommendations they make to prospective home buyers. Any such bias, it is argued, acts as a constraint to the informa- tion field and therefore also to the search space of such households. It was found that although the con- sensus of real estate salespersons concerning neigh- borhoods "appropriate" for four household types was largely in accord with the actual distribution of such households within the two metropolitan areas, that individual responses showed highly limited patterns of information and preference. Even when given the opportunity to recommend areas anywhere within the metropolitan area in a hypothetical, non-sales situa- tion, individual salespersons centered their recom- mendations on those areas in which they are most active in the selling and listing of houses. The size and complexity of the metropolitan setting do seem to affect the strength of these tendencies, but even in a medium-sized, relatively homogeneous setting, there exists a localized pattern of realtor information. In general, those households which are dependent on realty salesmen for information on neighborhood characteristics are making use of a highly structured and spatially limited information source.

Intermetropolitan Patterns of Strike Frequency

Abstract: Examination of the differences in strike frequency in the United States metropolitan areas between 1968 and 1970. Factors that influence the frequency of strikes; Characteristics of cities; Impact of local, industrial, and government structure on the incidence of strikes; Summary and interpretation. (Abstract copyright EBSCO.)

The changing pattern of population distribution in Japan and its implications for developing countries

Abstract: Concentration of population in a few metropolitan areas is considered as a serious problem in developing as well as developed countries. Japan is no exception. During the 30 years since the World War II the population distribution in Japan has been shifting toward greater concentration in large metropolitan areas. One of the most striking characteristics of the Japanese experience is the rapidity of the change: during the period of fast economic growth nearly half of the prefectures were losing population in absolute terms due to out-migration to large metropolitan areas. There appears to have been a change in this situation recently however. The population registration record has revealed that none of the prefectures lost population in absolute terms during 1974. This is a phenomenal departure from the past trend which lasted for 18 years. This change has been preceded by a gradual decline in the number of prefectures losing population since 1970. Indeed Japans economy or society as a whole appears to have been undergoing substantial changes since around 1970. In terms of population distribution some observers state that there has been a U-turn phenomenon implying that more people started to migrate from large urban centers back to small urban centers and rural areas than vice versa. In terms of the economic growth of the economy as a whole there has been an apparent slowing down of growth rates. This change has coincided with rapidly intensified public concern with the quality of the environment and pollution. In addition there have been a number of other significant social changes such as an increase in concern over distribution of income and international political and monetary disturbances during recent years. The purpose of this paper is first to examine the nature of the recent change in the pattern of population distribution in Japan and then to identify the factors which are responsible for the change. (excerpt)

A Content Analysis of Metropolitan Newspaper Coverage of Social Issues

Abstract: Papers devoted 8.8% of newshole to coverage of social issues. Most stories were staff written and oriented to issues rather than events.

On the Fate of "Lilliputs" In Metropolitan Policing

Abstract: An extravagant number of miniscule local governments hurts in many ways. Lilliputian governments essentially lack the territory and population to solve areawide problems, or to render effective services.... Fragmented local government also means splintered law enforcement, with overlapping jurisdictions, petty jealousies and rivalries, poor or nonexistent communications networks, inadequate training ....2

Transportation planning for a better environment

Abstract: Section 1 Regional and Urban Transportation Planning.- Better Towns with Less Traffic.- Recent Changes in Transportation and Urban Planning.- Transportation and Land-Use: Problems in Recent Urban Planning Concepts.- The Quality of Urban Life and of Transportation Systems as Determinants of Regional Development Plans.- Land-Use as an Element of Community Structure and Transport.- Section 2 Transportation Planning in Developing Countries.- Problems of Long-Range Travel Behaviour Forecasts in Developing Countries.- Transportation and Urban Life in Developing Nations.- The Relation between Socio-Economic Development and Transportation in Turkey.- Section 3 Modelling and Quantitative Techniques.- Analysis Tools for Evaluating the Effects of Land-Use and Fiscal Control Policies in Developing Communities.- The Sensitivity of Transport Model Output to Variation in Input Assumptions about Travellers' Behaviour.- Roads for New Communities.- Section 4 The Development and Operation of Public Transport Systems.- Australian Government Involvement in Urban Transport.- Cluster Analysis of West German Towns with Special Reference to Personal Rapid Transit Systems.- Human Factors and Ergonomic Considerations in the Design of Automatic Transit Systems.- Peak Period Underground Rail Travel - The London Experience.- Analytic Reflections on the Planning of Public Transport in Metropolitan Areas.- Section 5 Human and Social Factors in Transportation Planning.- Transportation as a Social Environment: Can We Change a Tradition?.- The Mutual Impacts of Transportation and Human Behaviour.- City Centre and Transport Planning - Human Factors and Systems Science. A Problem of Imbalance.- Environmental Assessments for United Kingdom Urban Transportation Studies.- Section 6 Environmental Assessment.- The Social Severance Effects of Major Urban Roads.- People's Responses to Pedestrianisation Schemes.- Socio-Economic and Situational Factors in Urban Traffic Noise Annoyance Levels.- Motor Traffic Noise and Housing.- The Concept of Spatial Mobility and an Analytical Approach.- Section 7 Traffic Accidents.- The System Concept and the Study of Accidents.- A Quasi-Clinical Strategy for Investigating Attitudes in the Transportation Domain.- The Relationship between Road Accidents and Urban Structure.- A Systems Approach to Urban Bicycle Safety.- Section 8 Citizen Participation and Open Planning.- Popper and Participation. A Solution to Urban Segregation.- The Question of Land-Use in the Participatory Transportation Study.- Citizen Participation in Transportation Planning.- Citizen Participation: an Administrative Strategy for Transportation Improvement.

An Analysis of Migration Patterns and Local Government Policy toward Public Education in the United States

Abstract: The objective of this study is two-fold. First, it seeks empirically to ascertain the possible impact of differential local government policies toward (commitments to) public education on migration patterns. Second, it seeks to ascertain, simultaneously, the possible impact of migration patterns on local government policies toward public education. Section II analyses the problem by examining gross in-migration patterns to metropolitan areas over the 1965-1970 time period. Section III deals with net in-migration to metropolitan areas for the 1960-1970 period. Overall, the net in-migration results are entirely compatible with those for gross in-migration, that is, empirically speaking, the causality between in-migration and local government public education spending per full-time student is bi-directional.

The Detroit Decision and "White Flight"

Abstract: ON July 25, 1974, the Supreme Court ruled in the case of Milliken v. Bradley that efforts to desegregate the Detroit public schools could not be extended beyond the boundaries of the city school system. Although the Court did not close the door on all metropolitan desegregation plans, as the subsequent Wilmington decision demonstrates, this ruling will probably minimize the implementation of metropolitan plans except in the handful of urban areas where the entire metropolitan area lies within a single school system.' In most urban areas, compliance with desegregation decisions will leave city schools with substantially higher proportions of minority students than neighboring suburban schools. All of this may pose a serious problem for the racial stability of central cities. There is a widely held belief that such racial disparities will cause whites to increase their rate of suburbanization or "white flight," thereby increasing the extent of overall racial segregation. This view was expressed by district court judge Stephen Roth. According to Judge Roth, a Detroit-only desegregation plan "would change a school system which is now Black and White to one that would be perceived as Black, thereby increasing the flight of whites from the city and the system, thereby increasing the Black student population."2 Supreme Court Justice Marshall expressed much the same view in his dissenting opinion in Milliken v. Bradley: "Because of the already high and rapidly increasing percentage of Negro students in the Detroit system, as well as the prospect of white flight, a Detroit-only plan simply has no hope of achieving actual desegregation." In the long run, according to Marshall, the prohibition of metropolitan desegregation plans will "allow our great metropolitan areas to be divided up each into two cities-one white, the other black. .. ..,3 Despite its wide publicity, the phenomenon of "white flight" has been