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Showing papers on "Metropolitan area published in 1998"


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this article, the authors identify four periods of intense study of cities by economists, including the first systematic empirical analysis of the forces affecting the location of firms and households within cities, which led to an increased understanding of the economics of urban areas and the unique role played by cities in the modem economy.
Abstract: At the risk of some simplification, it is possible to identify four periods of intense study of cities by economists. Each of these has led to an increased understanding of the economics of urban areas and the unique role played by cities in the modem economy. The first of these periods occurred in the decade after World War I—only about ten years after the truck revolutionized the transport of goods within urban areas. This period included the first systematic empirical analysis of the forces affecting the location of firms and households within cities. Robert Murray Haig (1926) and a number of other microeconomists at Columbia analyzed the spatial pattems of manufacturing activity in lower Manhattan and in the rest of New York City. Haig jmd his colleagues devoted considerable attention to "where things 'belong' in an urban area" (p. 402), providing the first systematic economic analysis of urban spatial structure. For example, they analyzed the garment industry, concluding that it was destined "by nature" to disperse north of 14th Street, and predicting that it would follow the estabhshed spatial pattem of the cooperage (barrelmaking) industry. Standardization in size and quality of barrels had meant that identical barrels could be made throughout the New York metropolitan area, even in New Jersey, and the introduction of the truck meant that they could be transported cheaply throughout the region and exported. The second of these periods—though not in chronological order—began in the mid-1960s. It formalized many of the insights about location incentives within urban areas which had been uncovered a half century before, mixed them with the logic of Heinrich von Thunen's (1826) ancient theories about agricultural crops and land values, and applied them to the hotisehold sector. The works of William Alonso (1964)

706 citations


Book
01 Jan 1998
TL;DR: A transit metropolis is a region where a workable fit exists between transit services and urban form as mentioned in this paper, and it is defined as "a region where transit services are well suited for rail services and flexible, fleet-footed bus services well suited to spread-out development".
Abstract: A transit metropolis is a region where a workable fit exists between transit services and urban form. In some cases this means compact, mixed-use development well suited for rail services, and in others it means flexible, fleetfooted bus services well suited to spread-out development. Part 1 of the book introduces the transit metropolis as a paradigm for sustainable regional development; part 2 provides four case studies - Stockholm, Copenhagen, Singapore and Tokyo - featuring cityscapes that have been designed and contoured, largely as a result of farsighted and proactive land use planning to support very intense rail transit services; part 3 discusses the hybrids, places that have struck a workable balance between concentrating development along trunkline transit corridors and adapting transit to serve spread-out suburbs efficiently; part 4 covers the strong-core cities that have effectively tied rail transit improvements to central city revitalization; part 5 discusses adaptive transit, i.e., tailoring transit to serve cities and suburbs; and, part 6 summarizes the key lessons learned from the case studies presented in this book and it then reviews efforts under way in five North American metropolitan areas: Portland, Oregon; Vancouver, British Columbia; San Diego, California; St. Louis, Missouri; and Houston, Texas. The book closes with a discussion of the challenges of nurturing and growing transit metropolises in the 21st century.

658 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: This article found a positive, large, and persistent relationship between human capital and MSA growth, and evidence of spillovers between cities within MSAs:city employment growth was positively related to human capital elsewhere within the MSA.

345 citations


Book
01 Nov 1998
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors address problems caused by unplanned growth in the battlefield where urban meets rural - 10-40 miles outside of major urban areas where traditional rural industries of farming, forestry, and mining are rapidly giving away to residential and service-oriented development.
Abstract: As traditional rural industries give way to residential and commercial development, the land at the edges of developed areas - the rural-urban "fringe" - is becoming the middle landscape between city and countryside that the suburbs once were. The fringe is where America's struggles over population growth and the development of open space are most visible and bitter. The author addresses problems caused by unplanned growth in the battlefield where urban meets rural - 10-40 miles outside of major urban areas where traditional rural industries of farming, forestry, and mining are rapidly giving away to residential and service-oriented development. The fringe differs from the suburb in that the development is much lass dense and more sporadic. The implications for accommodating economic and population growth pressures, as well as issues of environmental quality and competitiveness in the global economy, are profound. But formulating and implementing solutions to sprawl and managing growth in the fringe have seemed elusive. As the nation's population and economy expand, the challenges of managing growth in the fringe will become more heated and complex. The author examines the fringe phenomenon and presents a workable approach to fostering more compact development. He provides viable alternatives to traditional land use and development practices and offers a solid framework and rational perspective for wider adoption of growth management techniques.

293 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors present five key ecological principles (content, context, dynamics, heterogeneity, and hierarchy) and use the New York City Metropolitan Area as a case study to illustrate how these principles might be applied to achieve specific planning goals.

156 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors developed a reliable model of social vulnerability among one marginalized group that can be used to improve disaster planning and management among the homeless and other ‘special needs’ groups in megacities at risk throughout the world.

148 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors used a discrete choice approach to estimate the impact of local fiscal and other variables on individual community choices using a combination of a unique micro data set composed of 90% of all homeowners in six school districts in New Jersey.

146 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: This paper constructed new place-to-place indexes of the price of housing, using the 1990 Census, and analyzed the determinants of housing prices, with a particular focus on the supply side determinants, as well as the usual demand determinants.
Abstract: Housing prices vary widely from market to market in the United States. The purpose of this study is to (1) construct new place-to-place indexes of the price of housing, using the 1990 Census, and (2) analyze the determinants of housing prices, with a particular focus on the supply side determinants—regulatory and natural constraint—as well as the usual demand determinants.

139 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: Investigation of the mortality experience of respondents aged 30 years and older on the 1986-94 National Health Interview Surveys found that poverty was associated with significantly elevated risk of mortality, even after controlling for individual household income.
Abstract: The increase in income inequality in the United States over the past 20 years has been accompanied by a pronounced increase in economic segregation in urban areas. No research to date has analyzed the potential effects of such spatial segregation on mortality. To investigate these effects, the mortality experience of respondents aged 30 years and older on the 1986-94 National Health Interview Surveys residing in any one of 30 large metropolitan areas in the United States was analyzed. Concentrated poverty was associated with significantly elevated risk of mortality, even after controlling for individual household income. Concentrated affluence showed a consistent, protective effect only among the elderly. The effects were most pronounced among the poor, but were not confined to them. Urban planning should take into account the effects associated with economic residential segregation.

138 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: The authors examined the relationship between city and suburb growth over the last three decades for a sample of U.S. metropolitan areas and developed a structural empirical model relating city income growth to suburban growth in income, population, and house values.
Abstract: In this paper I examine the relationship between city and suburbangrowth over the last three decades for a sample of U.S. metropolitan areas. I develop a structuralempirical model relating city income growth to suburban growth in income, population, andhouse values. The model allows for bidirectional effects of cities on suburbs and suburbs oncities, as well as for unobserved factors affecting both city and suburbs. The simultaneous,latent-variable model is identified using a combination of exclusion and covariance restrictions.Instrumental estimation results indicate that income growth in large cities enhances suburbangrowth; but income growth in small cities has little effect.

130 citations


Posted Content
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors present measures of segregation in public schools for metropolitan areas and show that not only are metropolitan areas very segregated, most of that segregation is due to racial disparities between districts rather than segregative patterns within districts.
Abstract: This paper presents measures of segregation in public schools for metropolitan areas. It shows that, not only are metropolitan areas very segregated, most of that segregation is due to racial disparities between districts rather than segregative patterns within districts. Metropolitan areas in the South and West tend to have larger districts, and thus feature less fragmentation by school district. Segregation at the metropolitan level appears to vary systematically with size, racial mix, and region. Because larger metropolitan areas tend to have more jurisdictions and exhibit greater differences in racial composition among jurisdictions, measured segregation rises with size, as measured by school enrollment.

Posted Content
TL;DR: In this paper, a review of data collected during 1996 and 1997 reveals that many banks set uniform interest rates for both retail loans and deposits across an entire state or broad regions of a large state.
Abstract: In the view of most policymakers and economists, competition in retail banking takes place in local markets covering a relatively small geographic area. Banks are thought to design their services and set their loan and deposit rates in response to the supply and demand conditions prevailing in a particular city, county, or metropolitan area. In keeping with this view, studies of the competitiveness of banking markets generally focus on developments at the local level: for example, researchers and regulatory agencies assessing the effects of bank mergers on competition will examine the degree to which deposits in a given metropolitan area are concentrated in a few large banks. A reevaluation of the idea that banking markets are local may, however, be overdue. The banking industry has undergone a remarkable transformation in the past twenty years. Deregulation has removed many of the geographic restraints on bank expansion; banks are now free to establish branches nationwide or to buy banks in other parts of the country. In addition, banks are seeking to achieve greater efficiency in payment, credit, and depository services by standardizing their product offerings, centralizing their operations, and shifting decision-making responsibility from local managers to the head office. In light of these changes, this article investigates whether larger geographic areas have replaced cities and counties as the true marketplace for banking services. A review of data collected during 1996 and 1997 reveals that many banks set uniform interest rates for both retail loans and deposits across an entire state or broad regions of a large state. If banks were still operating in distinct local markets, their retail interest rates would show substantial intercity variation. Regression analysis of the effect of market concentration on deposit rates provides additional evidence that local markets have been absorbed into larger arenas of competition: the significant relationship that earlier research detected between individual banks' deposit rates and measures of concentration at the local level is no longer evident, while a significant relationship does emerge at the state level. These results suggest that local markets the size of a single county or metropolitan area are no longer relevant and that state boundaries may offer a better approximation of the boundaries of retail banking markets. We begin our investigation with a look at the events and ideas that have contributed to the conventional view that banking markets are local. A discussion of the forces that are reshaping the banking industry and undermining the concept of local markets follows. In the balance of the article, we present our statistical evidence supporting the emergence of larger retail markets. HOW BANKING MARKETS HAVE CONVENTIONALLY BEEN DEFINED The notion that retail banking markets are local in scope figured importantly in the Supreme Court's decision in the Philadelphia National Bank Case of 1963.(1) In ruling that the banking industry was subject to the nation's antitrust legislation, the Court determined that commercial banking was a bundle of services and that banking markets were local in coverage. Since then, the government agencies responsible for clearing mergers and acquisitions of banking organizations have followed the Court's lead by assessing competition within relatively narrow geographic areas.(2) In measuring competition within local markets, regulators and other analysts have had to specify what is meant by "local." Most equate local markets in urban areas with the Census Bureau's metropolitan statistical areas (MSAs). For areas outside large cities, analysts often designate whole counties as separate markets. Underlying the conventional definition of banking markets is the idea that market boundaries are determined from the demand side. In other words, the actions of households and business firms--the buyers of banking services--determine the reach of markets, not the actions of banks as the sellers of these services. …

01 Jan 1998
TL;DR: In this article, the audit committee and management of the Metropolitan Transportation Authority (MTA) considered the internal control over financial reporting as a basis for designing audit procedures that are appropriate in the circumstances, but not for the purpose of expressing an opinion on the effectiveness of the MTA's internal control of financial reporting.
Abstract: Dear Members of the Audit Committee and Management: In planning and performing our audits of the consolidated financial statements of the Metropolitan Transportation Authority and of the financial statements of the First Mutual Transportation Assurance Transit Operating Authority and the Triborough Bridge and Tunnel Authority (collectively the " MTA ") as of and for the year ended December 31, 2011 (on which we have issued our reports dated May 2, 2012 with the exception of the New York City Transit Authority and Staten Island Rapid Transit Operating Authority.), in accordance with auditing standards generally accepted in the United States of America, we considered the MTA's internal control over financial reporting as a basis for designing audit procedures that are appropriate in the circumstances, but not for the purpose of expressing an opinion on the effectiveness of the MTA's internal control over financial reporting. Accordingly, we do not express an opinion on the effectiveness of the MTA's internal control over financial reporting. Our consideration of internal control over financial reporting was for the limited purpose described in the preceding paragraph and was not designed to identify all deficiencies in internal control over financial reporting. However, in connection with our audits, we have identified, and included in the attached Appendix A, deficiencies related to the MTA's internal control over financial reporting as of December 31, 2011, that we wish to bring to your attention. We have also issued a separate report to the Audit Committee, dated April 25, 2012, which included a certain matter involving the Staten Island Rapid Transit Operating Authority's internal control over financial reporting that we consider to be a material weakness under standards established by the American Institute of Certified Public Accountants. The definition of a deficiency is also set forth in the attached Appendix B.Although we have included management's written response to our comments in the attached Appendix A, such responses have not been subjected to the auditing procedures applied in our audits and, accordingly, we do not express an opinion or provide any form of assurance on the appropriateness of the responses or the effectiveness of any corrective actions described therein. This report is intended solely for the information and use of management, the Audit Committee, and others within the organization and is not intended to be, and should not be, used by anyone other than these specified parties.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this paper, a regression analysis was used to identify weather and socioeconomic characteristics of the 44 metropolitan areas that may explain the differences in hot-weather-related mortality, showing that variability in minimum daily Summer temperatures may be one of the most important factors.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: Using 1990 census data, the authors compared 77 immigrant and ethnic groups in the 16 largest metropolitan regions in the United States and found that the interaction effect of location and ethnic group groups on migration was significant.
Abstract: Using 1990 census data, the authors compare 77 immigrant and ethnic groups in the 16 largest metropolitan regions in the United States. They find that the interaction effect of location and ethnici...

Book
01 Jan 1998
TL;DR: The authors examines forces for change and resistance in urban education and proposes that the barrier to reform can only be overcome by understanding how schools fit into the broader political contexts of their cities, and suggests how cities can build support for reform through the involvement of business and other community players.
Abstract: With critical issues like desegregation and funding facing our schools, dissatisfaction with public education has reached a new high. Teachers decry inadequate resources while critics claim educators are more concerned with job security than effective teaching. Though urban education has reached crisis proportions, contending players have difficulty agreeing on a common program of action. This book tells why. "Changing Urban Education" confronts the prevailing naivete in school reform by examining the factors that shape, reinforce, or undermine reform efforts. Edited by one of the nation's leading urban scholars, it examines forces for change and resistance in urban education and proposes that the barrier to reform can only be overcome by understanding how schools fit into the broader political contexts of their cities. Much of the problem with our schools lies with the reluctance of educators to recognize the profoundly political character of public education. The contributors show how urban political contexts vary widely with factors like racial composition, the role of the teachers' union, and relations between cities and surrounding metropolitan areas. Presenting case studies of original field research in Baltimore, Chicago, Houston, and six other urban areas, they consider how resistance to desegregation and the concentration of the poor in central urban areas affect education, and they suggest how cities can build support for reform through the involvement of business and other community players. By demonstrating the complex interrelationship between urban education and politics, this book shows schools to be not just places for educating children, but also major employers and large spenders of tax dollars. It also introduces the concept of civic capacity the ability of educators and non-educators to work together on common goals and suggests that this key issue must be addressed before education can be improved. "Changing Urban Education" makes it clear to educators that the outcome of reform efforts depends heavily on their political context as it reminds political scientists that education is a major part of the urban mix. While its prognosis is not entirely optimistic, it sets forth important guidelines that cannot be ignored if our schools are to successfully prepare children for the future."

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: Three attributes of rural America reflect its fundamental nature: (a) a relatively sparse population, (b) its interdependence with urban and global systems, and (c) its enormous diversity as mentioned in this paper.
Abstract: Three attributes of rural America reflect its fundamental nature: (a) a relatively sparse population, (b) its interdependence with urban and global systems, and (c) its enormous diversity. These attributes are frequently neglected in rural studies work; when they are not recognized, conclusions pertaining to rural places are seldom reliable. The 1990 census reports that 97% of the land area of the forty-eight contiguous states is rural and about 80% is nonmetropolitan. This vast area provides residence for 22.5% and 24.8% of the population, respectively. Sparsity of population is of value to some people most of the time, and other people part of the time, as well as for certain space-using activities such as farming and forestry. Nevertheless, space equates to distance, and overcoming distance requires a sacrifice of time and other resources (Crosson, Fuguitt, Hart). Farming occupies about one-half the land area of rural America. Farming and agricultural services provide less than 10% of the total employment in nonmetropolitan places. Further, there is a remarkable similarity in the sectoral shares of employment between metropolitan and nonmetropolitan counties (Mills). Thus, there is little factual basis for the common practice of treating agricultural and rural as synonymous. Great interdependence exists between rural and urban systems, rural fundamentalist rhetoric to the contrary (Weber). It is difficult to imagine a single significant rural social problem that can be understood or addressed in isolation from urban or global systems (Jacobs).


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this paper, an interdependent model of residential and employment location was developed and empirically tested using census tract data from the Boston metropolitan area, where access to workers was included in employment location equations together with standard employment location variables, and access to jobs is included in residential location equations along with standard residential location variables.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: Male youth suicide rates rose substantially over the 30 years in all Australian States, whereas female rates did not increase, and changes in method-specific suicide rates and, in particular, firearm and hanging suicide rates in rural and metropolitan areas are investigated.
Abstract: OBJECTIVES: (i) To compare suicide rates in 15-24 year old men and women; and (ii) for 15-24 year old men, to investigate differences in suicide rates between metropolitan and rural area, and changes in method-specific suicide rates and, in particular, firearm and hanging suicide rates in rural and metropolitan areas. DESIGN: Retrospective analysis of Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS) suicide data (1964-1993). SETTING: All Australian States. SUBJECTS: Young women and men aged 15-24 years who died by suicide. RESULTS: Male youth suicide rates rose substantially over the 30 years in all Australian States, whereas female rates did not increase. Increases in suicide rates in young men in small rural towns consistently exceeded those in metropolitan areas in all Australian States. Metropolitan rates in 1964 were higher than those in small rural towns, but by 1993 the position was reversed. Medium-sized cities were the only areas where there was no consistent interstate trend. Differences were noted in suicide base rates in different States. High car exhaust suicide rates were noted in Western Australia, and high firearm suicide rates in Tasmania and Queensland. The ratio of firearm suicide rates in small rural areas to those in metropolitan areas rose in all mainland States, but the same ratio for hanging suicide rates changed little. CONCLUSIONS: All Australian States reflect national suicide trend in relation to sex and residential area. In some States, particular suicide methods predominate. A decreasing trend in overall firearm suicide rates in young men in all States from 1984 to 1993 conceals substantial increases in firearm suicide rates in small rural areas in all mainland States over the 30-year period. This, together with the marked rate ratio difference in firearm suicides between metropolitan and small rural areas, suggests that particular risk factors for suicide are operating in small rural areas. The fact that hanging rate ratios changed little suggests that more general factors in male youth suicide are also operating in all areas. A better understanding of similarities and differences in health risks faced by metropolitan and rural youth is required.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: The authors evaluated the effects of tourism on American metropolitan areas and determined whether tourism-dependent cities in the United States are similar to those elsewhere, and found two distinct types of tourism urbanization in United States, one specializing in "sun, sand, and sea" tourism and the other specializing in highly capital-intensive tourist attractions.
Abstract: The rapid growth of the tourism industry over the past 50 years has had a number of important consequences. One of these is the evolution of entire metropolitan areas heavily dependent on tourism, a phenomenon Mullins calls tourism urbanization. Such urban centers include Las Vegas and Orlando in the United States, the Sunshine Coast and the Gold Coast in Australia, and Cancun in Mexico. Studies of tourism-dependent cities outside the United States have shown them to differ symbolically and socially from more traditional metropolitan areas. The author evaluates the effects of tourism on American metropolitan areas and determines whether tourism-dependent cities in the United States are similar to those elsewhere. The author found two distinct types of tourism urbanization in the United States. One type specializes in "sun, sand, and sea" tourism, and the other specializes in highly capital-intensive tourist attractions. The two types of tourist cities exhibit different social structures, and both differ i...

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this article, the authors examined how these changes may affect both commuting patterns and metropolitan form, using 1990 Public Use Micro Sample data for the Los Angeles region, and compared the commuting and location patterns of contingent and non-contingent workers.
Abstract: Continued advances in information and communications technology are fundamentally changing the structure of the workplace and the organisation of work. Temporary work and self-employment are increasing, while job tenure is declining. This paper examines how these changes may affect both commuting patterns and metropolitan form. The growing number of workers who do not have a long-term attachment to a specific employer are termed 'contingent workers'. Using 1990 Public Use Micro Sample data for the Los Angeles region, the paper compares the commuting and location patterns of contingent and non-contingent workers. Results are quite mixed: residential location patterns do not differ significantly across worker categories, but commute length varies by category, with the self-employed having the shortest commutes.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this article, two mechanisms that determine the "rules of the game" of local development and public regulation of urban sprawl are discussed: local government finance and the transfer of land from rural to urban local authorities.
Abstract: Urban sprawl, fuelled by powerful market forces, is unlikely to be controlled by macro-scale regional plans or by comprehensive reforms of the local government map. This paper emphasises two mechanisms that determine the 'rules of the game' of local development and public regulation of urban sprawl: local government finance and the transfer of land from rural to urban local authorities. Sharing local taxes paid by new non-residential property is discussed, in the Israeli context, as a means to reduce overdevelopment of industrial areas in the metropolitan fringes as well as pressures on open space. Complementary regulative measures, where rural local government is separated from urban local government, are based on improved co-ordination between land-use planning and decisions on municipal boundary changes.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: The authors examined linkages between recent domestic out-migration from immigrant gateway metropolitan areas and nonmetropolitan migration gains, based on data of the 1990 census, 1996 Current Population Survey, and population estimates for the 1990-1996 period from the Bureau of Census.
Abstract: This article examines linkages between recent domestic out-migration from immigrant gateway metropolitan areas and nonmetropolitan migration gains, based on data of the 1990 census, 1996 Current Population Survey, and population estimates for the 1990–1996 period from the Bureau of Census. Our analysis of these data suggests that there is a mirror image of migration patterns between high immigration metropolitan area losses and nonmetropolitan area gains. This is especially evident in the West with the relationship between Los Angeles and San Francisco areas' losses on the one hand, and the region's nonmetropolitan gains on the other. While pre-elderly and elderly retirees have contributed to these nonmetropolitan gains, much of it is attributable to the destination choices of suburban-like populations—Whites with children, not college educated, and with lower incomes—that have been leaving high immigration metropolitan areas. This new, more dispersed form of “White flight” holds the potential for reinvig...

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this article, comparative analysis of two cities in contrasting geographical, cultural, and institutional contexts shows that business ownership, business integration, large metropolitan context, and economic advantage or disadvantage are five special non-institutional factors promoting regimes.
Abstract: Rather than weakening regime theory, comparative analysis illuminates its central theoretical insights. The cases of Leeds (United Kingdom) and Lille (France) show cities in contrasting geographical, cultural, and institutional contexts developing regime like local polities through business participation in a wide range of public-sector decisions. The five special noninstitutional factors promoting regimes are local business ownership, business integration, large metropolitan context, and economic advantage or disadvantage. The distinctiveness of these cities in their countries is an indication of the degree of policy learning and capacity generation that has taken place.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this article, the authors examine the process of land use conversion in Manila's extended metropolitan region and suggest that rural-urban relations must be seen as intensely political, and that the conversion of rice land into industrial, residential and recreational uses represents a political process in two senses: first, policy choices are made relating to the use of land that reflect a particular set of developmental priorities; and second, the facilitation of conversion involves using of political power relations to circumvent certain regulations.
Abstract: By examining the process of land use conversion in Manila's extended metropolitan region, this paper suggests that rural-urban relations must be seen as intensely political. The conversion of rice land into industrial, residential and recreational uses represents a political process in two senses: first, policy choices are made relating to the use of land that reflect a particular set of developmental priorities; and second, the facilitation of conversion involves the use of political power relations to circumvent certain regulations. These points are made at three different, but interconnected, levels: at the national level of policy formulation; at the local level of policy implementation and regulation; and at the personal level of everyday power relations in rural areas. The paper draws upon fieldwork in the rapidly urbanizing province of Cavite to the south of Metropolitan Manila.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this paper, migration, spatial segregation, and housing segmentation in metropolitan Stockholm, 1960-95, were studied, and the results showed that migration and spatial segregation led to increased urban sparsification.
Abstract: Immigration, spatial segregation and housing segmentation in metropolitan Stockholm, 1960-95

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this article, a case study of change in gravity-accessibility to employment by automobile in Atlanta, between 1980 and 1990, is presented, showing that overall accessibility declined at the end of the decade rather than continuing its steady increase, and its influence on residential density at the tract level also changed direction.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: The authors provide an Australian perspective on the Sydney experience, focusing on economic, demographic, historical, institutional, and policy factors to explain the more muted scale and contrasting forms of commercial suburbanization.
Abstract: A strand of recent American planning literature has been the exploration of “edge city” style suburbanization. Similar outer city landscapes with attendant planning problems have been identified in foreign settings, but a culturally sensitive approach to the relevant comparisons of pattern, process and policy is needed. Focusing on the Sydney experience, this paper provides an Australian perspective. Its discussion of economic, demographic, historical, institutional, and policy factors is centrally concerned with explaining the more muted scale and contrasting forms of commercial suburbanization. The instructiveness of differences as much as of similarities is highlighted in the comparative analysis.

Journal Article
TL;DR: Leistritz et al. as mentioned in this paper investigated the relationship between community characteristics, the business environment, the use of competitive strategies, and the business performance of retail entrepreneurs in rural communities.
Abstract: The financial viability of rural retail businesses has become a major concern of economic and community development specialists (Ayres, Leistritz, and Stone 1992) due to a decline in the ability to capture the purchasing power of trade area residents. This decline in retail sales volume can be devastating to small towns, leading to business closures with resultant job losses, outmigration, and reductions in rural tax bases (Leistritz and Hamm 1994). The purpose of this article is to report findings from a study that investigated the interrelationship among community characteristics, the community's business environment, the use of competitive strategies, and the business performance of retail entrepreneurs in rural communities. The objectives of the study were: (1) to examine the strength of the relationships among community characteristics, the business environment, the use of competitive strategies, and retail performance; (2) to examine the nature and/or effect of the relationships among the variables; and (3) to determine whether any of the variables or combinations of variables contribute to retail performance. Review of the Literature Community Characteristics During the past decade, significant changes have taken place in the business environment due to economic restructuring nationwide. The effects of these changes have been particularly severe in nonmetropolitan areas of the United States. The restructuring of the manufacturing sector in the Midwest and South, the depressed markets for the agricultural products of the Great Plains and Corn Belt states, and the retrenchment of the energy industry in the Rocky Mountain and Great Plains states have all led to economic stress for many rural areas and, in some cases, for entire states (Barkley 1993; Bernat 1992; Leistritz and Harem 1994). One result of the economic restructuring that has been occurring in rural areas has been a widening economic gap between metropolitan and nonmetropolitan areas (Barkley 1993). Since 1979, the per capita income in rural counties in the U.S. has fallen behind that of their urban counterparts. Furthermore, these patterns of widening rural disadvantage have prevailed regardless of the counties' dominant economic base. Areas with a primary economic dependence on farming, manufacturing, and mining all recorded major declines in relative income, while those primarily dependent on retirement and tourism had smaller losses (Cook 1990; Drabenstott 1991; Fagen and Longino 1992; Frederick 1993). Worsening economic conditions in rural areas have also led to substantial migration from rural to urban areas. Rural counties that are not adjacent to metropolitan areas have been hit particularly hard by outmigration (Leistritz and Hamm 1994). Significant losses of population and purchasing power through outmigration can pose major problems for local small business retailers. Business Environment Influences such as economic restructuring, intensified competition, government regulations, and technological advances have resulted in heightened environmental turbulence and uncertainty for small business firms. As noted by Covin and Slevin (1989), small businesses are particularly susceptible to environmental influences due to limited resources and the devastating consequences of poor managerial decisions. According to the authors, An environmental dimension which...serves as a threat to small firm viability and performance is hostility. Hostile environments are characterized by precarious industry settings, intense competition, harsh, overwhelming business climates and the relative lack of exploitable opportunities. Non-hostile or benign environments...provide a safe setting for business operations due to their overall level of munificence and richness in investment and marketing opportunities (p. 75). Porter (1980) contends that the business environment differs by industry. Ireland et al. …