Showing papers on "Mural published in 1987"

Mural Paintings in Ancient Peru

Abstract: nology, typology, and use-wear analysis that is associated with sociopolitical concepts such as anthropogenesis, ethnogenesis, economic models, and settlement patterns. Finally, the third stage has been characterized as a \"problem situation\" (Gening, Ocherki po istorii Sovetskoy arkheologii, 1982). According to Gening, different views on key archaeological concepts such as archaeological culture, ethnogenesis, settlement patterns, and on taxonomy and periodization have created controversies among archaeologists that have proved counterproductive. In summary, the development of Soviet Paleolithic archaeology is similar to the development of the archaeological discipline in general and reflects sociopolitical attitudes in the country. Soffer correctly points out the lack of data and limited interest of Soviet Paleolithic archaeologists in the analytical aspects of research suggesting various hypotheses about seasonal mammoth-procurement, local and regional utilization of resources, northern and southern areas of occupation, early and late settlement pattern, etc. Soviet researchers are familiar with western anthropological theories but they are very cautious in applying them. Soviet archaeologists, in general, are heavily field oriented and they are very efficient and productive in collecting field data. The relations among environment, subsistence, and society have been one of the constant and main concerns of the social sciences. Soffer applies various hypothetical models to explain subsistence practices of early humans in the Russian Plain. She builds her models on a techno-environmental approach (i.e., biophysical environment is a major factor influencing human adaptive strategies). Regarding the ecological-psychological approach, she states that \"The emphasis on the individual as the unit of analysis of all ecologically based approaches to subsistence behavior is bound to lead to misinterpretation of the archaeological record\" (p. 257). Those researchers, however, who believe in the significance of understanding the cognitive, decision-making process of humans in an ecosystem as a theoretical basis, before they build a model of the real world, find it productive for interpretations of assumptions not in the archaeological record. In fact, Soffer's conclusions about seasonal mammoth-procurement strategy and its economic role (pp. 194, 237, 280), utilization of abundant resources in a specific season (pp. 290, 320, 340, 348), long-term storage strategy (p. 355), and rational economic behavior of early hunter-gatherers on the Russian Plain are based upon her understanding of an individual psychological behavior to maximize gains and to minimize the risk. One result of Soffer's studies is a correlation between the site and surrounding resources that addresses why and how long-distance resources were utilized. This appears to be a by-product of non-biological human adaptive strategy, namely, that people plan ahead if they are expecting to utilize certain resources at a specific time and come prepared. Activities of this kind produce distinctive material residues. Although, in intra-site analysis, Soffer predicts that seasonal subsistence practices will be reflected in the archaeological record, she is aware that some of her analyses are not in harmony with the above statement (e.g., \" . . . mammoth is the most abundant species found in faunal assemblages\" (p. 204), however, \" . . . mammoth were not the major subsistence\" (p. 280) of early humans. Stanford, during field work in Alaska (Walakpa site) in 1968 and 1969 and using techno-typological and functional analysis of lithic assemblages and faunal remains, also concluded that the site occupants had planned ahead and prepared tools for future activity in different biotic zones. In his report (\"Economic Seasonality in Prehistoric Point Barrow Eskimo Cultures\") Stanford suggested that: \" . . . the seasonal round of the historic Point Barrow Eskimo can be viewed as a complex scheduling of various seasonal economic activities, which correlated with the maximum potentials of the various ecosystems.. . . The seasonal options are ranked in order of their economic potentials, so that the primary option has the greatest energy yield while the secondary and tertiary options are respectively less. . . . The scheduling of options will depend seasonally on the success of the primary option\" (n.d.:4, 5). For the planned-economy strategy, the understanding of individual human behavior, based on rational maximization decision-making principles, provides a significant insight into human evolution and adaptation and may be used to suggest an explanation for prehistoric human adaptive behavior. In \"Periglacial Ecology and the Emergence of Homo Sapience\" (in The Origin of Homo Sapience, Ecology and Conservation, Unesco) Watanabe was able to conclude: \"A common principle underlying the economy of the northern food-gatherers is planning for future needs . . . . In the North it is often difficult or impossible to obtain necessary resources just when they are needed: materials must be collected and artifacts made before the time of need\" (1971:274). In other words, it is impossible to derive seasonality of a settlement simply by analyzing the artifacts in a site. One may suggest that the behavioral mechanism of hunters and gatherers in their habitat (i.e., the relations between human subsistence regimes and environmental quality, and the rationale for a person to choose a certain geographical location for hving), should be subjected to conceptually and quantitatively designed ecological and psychological analysis before analytical limits with respect to anthropological subjects are determined. In summary, in spite of my disagreement with Olga Soffer on several methodological issues, I found her monograph an impressive work that will be used as a reference for a long time. It is the most complete research on the Soviet Paleolithic ever produced in the west. It may sound ironic, but I would recommend that this monograph be translated from English into Russian.

La consolidation des peintures murales: essais d'evaluation des procedes actuels de consolidation en vue de leur utilisation exterieur

Abstract: A three-part report on techniques used to conserve exterior mural paintings. Based on an exhaustive literature survey and consultations with experts. Part 1: the constituent materials of mural paintings and factors causing deterioration of external paintings (sun, water, salt etc.). Part 2: description of deterioration of mural paintings, the materials used for restoration and mechanisms of deterioration of these materials. Part 3: a description of consolidation procedures, the disadvantages and advantages of each, and examples of paintings in which the method has been used. Tables, bibliographies.