Showing papers on "Nanobiotechnology published in 2006"

Fluorescent core–shell silica nanoparticles: towards “Lab on a Particle” architectures for nanobiotechnology

Abstract: Novel nanoscale fluorescent materials are integral to the progress of emergent fields such as nanobiotechnology and facilitate new research in a variety of contexts. Sol–gel derived silica is an excellent host material for creating fluorescent nanoparticles by the inclusion of covalently-bound organic dyes. Significant enhancements in the brightness and stability of organic dye emission can be achieved for silica-based core–shell nanoparticle architectures at length scales down to tens of nanometers with narrow size distributions. This tutorial review will highlight these findings and describe the evolution of the fluorescent core–shell silica nanoparticle concept towards integration of multiple functionalities including mesoporosity, metal nanoshells and quantitative chemical sensing. These developments point towards the development of “lab on a particle” architectures with promising prospects for nanobiotechnology, drug development and beyond.

Nanocarriers: Promising Vehicle for Bioactive Drugs

Abstract: Development of new delivery systems that deliver the potential drug specifically to the target site in order to meet the therapeutic needs of the patients at the required time and level remains the key challenge in the field of pharmaceutical biotechnology. Developments in this context to achieve desired goal has led to the evolution of the multidisciplinary field nanobiotechnology which involves the combination of two most promising technologies of 21st century—biotechnology and nanotechnology. Nanobiotechnology encompasses a wide array of different techniques to improve the delivery of biotech drugs, and nanoparticles offer the most suitable form whose properties can be tailored by chemical methods. This review highlights the different types of nanoparticulate delivery systems employed for biotech drugs in the field of molecular medicine with a short overlook at its applications and the probable associated drawbacks.

Specific Targeting, Cell Sorting, and Bioimaging with Smart Magnetic Silica Core–Shell Nanomaterials

Abstract: Magnetic nanoparticles (MNPs) have been used in various areas, such as in the manufacture of bearings, seals, lubricants, heat carriers, and in printing, recording, and polishing media. [1] One of the rapidlydeveloping research subjects involving MNPs is their application in biological systems, including their application in magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), targeted drug delivery, rapid biological separation, biosensors, and magnetic hyperthermia therapy. [2] The exploration of the interaction between nanostructured materials and living systems is of fundamental and practical interest, and it opens new doors to novel interdisciplinaryresearch field, “nanobioscience”. MNPs exhibited great potential for in vitro and in vivo biomedical application, [3] and the biodistribution of MNPs is stronglyinfluenced bytheir size, charge, and surface chemistry. [4] Recentlypublished reports indicate that magnetic nanoparticles (or microparticles), Fe3O4, conjugated with various targeting molecules or antibodies, can be used to target specific cells in vitro. [5] However, the noncovalent surface modification of nanoparticles

Multifunctional Lipid/Quantum Dot Hybrid Nanocontainers for Controlled Targeting of Live Cells

Abstract: In this communication, we report on an interesting observation of wide-ranging potential for cellular imaging and manipulation: Hydrophobic QDs can be easily incorporated into the bilayer membrane of lipid vesicles. Such lipid/QD nanocontainer hybrid vesicles are capable either to fuse with live cells, thereby stain the cell’s plasma membrane selectively with fluorescent QDs and transfer the vesicle’s cargo into the cell or to transfer into the cytoplasm of live cells. Our results imply that cell and lipid membranes can integrate any kind of hydrophobic nanoparticle whose size matches the membrane thickness, opening novel possibilities to manipulate them as individuals or in ensemble with wide-ranging applications for nanobiotechnology.

Carbon nanotube delivery of the GFP gene into mammalian cells.

Abstract: Exogenous-gene expression and manipulation in mammalian cells has become a mainstay of biomedical research. Consequently, improving methods for efficient gene transfer to a broad range of cell types is of great interest and remains a high priority. Several classes of transfection methods have been developed, which include traditional cationic moleculemediated agents, such as Lipofectamine 20000 and FuGENE 6, viral-vector systems, and the “gene gun” approach. With the rapid development of nanobiotechnology, a variety of new materials, such as gold nanoparticles, silica nanoparticles, polymers, nanogels, and dendrimers have been investigated as biocompatible transporters. Recently, carbon nanotube—a well-studied nanomaterial— have been investigated for their ability to interact with and affect living systems. For instance, carbon nanotubes have been found to enhance DNA amplification in PCR and affect the growth pattern of neurons. Pantarotto et al. have reported the internalization of fluorescein isothiocynate (FITC) labeled nanotubes and nanotube delivery of the gene that encodes b-galactosidase into cells, with no apparent toxic effects. Kam et al. have studied the mechanism of protein-conjugated carbon nanotube uptake into cells via the endocytic pathway. Here we present our finding that amino-functionalized multiwalled carbon nanotubes (NH2-MWCNTs) are able to interact with plasmid DNA and deliver the green fluorescence protein (GFP) gene into cultured human cells. Our data strongly suggest that carbon nanotubes can be considered as a new carrier for the delivery of biomolecules, such as DNA, proteins, and peptides into mammalian cells. Therefore, this novel system might have potential applications in biology and therapy, including vaccine and gene delivery. In order to increase their biocompatibility, we introduced amino-, carboxyl-, hydroxyl-, and alkyl groups onto the surface of MWCNTs. COOH-MWCNTs were first prepared by nitric / sulfuric acid oxidation, and then NH2and CH3CH2CH2-groups were added. Finally, we obtained four types of MWCNTs with different chemical groups on their surface. Functionalized MWCNTs were observed under an electron microscope and were found to be 60–70 nm in diameter and 1–2 mm in length. Although we did not find a significant difference in size between the NH2-MWCNTs and NH2-MWCNT–DNAs, the latter appeared to have the tendency to aggregate (Figure 1B). In order to test the DNA-binding ability of amino-, carboxyl-, hydroxyl-, and alkyl-group-modified MWCNTs, we incubated them with pEGFPN1-plasmid DNA, and MWCNT–DNA mixtures were analyzed by agarose-gel electrophoresis. The results show that only NH2-MWCNT bound to DNA (Figure 2); since the NH2-MWCNT–DNA complex was too big to run into the

Nanoparticle-Based Diagnosis and Therapy

Abstract: Nanoparticles are at the leading edge of the rapidly developing field of material science in nanotechnology with many potential applications in clinical medicine and research. Due to their unique size-dependent properties nanoparticles offer the possibility to develop both new therapeutic and diagnostic tools. The ability to incorporate drugs into nanosystems displays a new paradigm in pharmacotherapy that could be used for cell-targeted drug delivery. Nontargeted nanosystems such as nanocarriers that are coated with polymers or albumin and solid lipid particles have been used to transport a large number of compounds. However, nowadays drugs can be coupled to nanocarriers that are specific for cells and/or organs. Thus, drugs that are either trapped within the carriers or deposited in subsurface oil layers could be specifically delivered to organs, tumors and cells. These strategies can be used to concentrate drugs in selected target tissues thus minimizing systemic side effects and toxicity. In addition to these therapeutic options, nanoparticle-based "molecular" imaging displays a field in which this new technology has set the stage for an evolutionary leap in diagnostic imaging. Based on the recent progress in nanobiotechnology, nanoparticles have the potential to become useful tools as therapeutic and diagnostic tools in the near future.

Applications of carbon nanotubes-based biomaterials in biomedical nanotechnology.

Abstract: One of the facets of nanotechnology applications is the immense opportunities they offer for new developments in medicine and health sciences. Carbon nanotubes (CNTs) have particularly attracted attention for designing new monitoring systems for environment and living cells as well as nanosensors. Carbon nanotubes-based biomaterials are also employed as support for active prosthesis or functional matrices in reparation of parts of the human body. These nanostructures are studied as molecular-level building blocks for the complex and miniaturized medical device, and substrate for stimulation of cellular growth. The CNTs are cylindrical shaped with caged molecules which can act as nanoscale containers for molecular species, well required for biomolecular recognition and drug delivery systems. Endowed with very large aspect ratios, an excellent electrical conductivity and inertness along with mechanical robustness, nanotubes found enormous applications in molecular electronics and bioelectronics. The ballistic electrical behaviour of SWNTs conjugated with functionalization promotes a large variety of biosensors for individual molecules. Actuative response of CNTs is considered very promising feature for nanodevices, micro-robots and artificial muscles. An description of CNTs based biomaterials is attempted in this review, in order to point out their enormous potential for biomedical nanotechnology and nanobiotechnology.

The role of molecular modeling in bionanotechnology

Abstract: Molecular modeling is advocated here as a key methodology for research and development in bionanotechnology. Molecular modeling provides nanoscale images at atomic and even electronic resolution, predicts the nanoscale interaction of unfamiliar combinations of biological and inorganic materials, and evaluates strategies for redesigning biopolymers for nanotechnological uses. The methodology is illustrated in this paper through reviewing three case studies. The first one involves the use of single-walled carbon nanotubes as biomedical sensors where a computationally efficient, yet accurate, description of the influence of biomolecules on nanotube electronic properties through nanotube–biomolecule interactions was developed; this development furnishes the ability to test nanotube electronic properties in realistic biological environments. The second case study involves the use of nanopores manufactured into electronic nanodevices based on silicon compounds for single molecule electrical recording, in particular, for DNA sequencing. Here, modeling combining classical molecular dynamics, material science and device physics, described the interaction of biopolymers, e.g., DNA, with silicon nitrate and silicon oxide pores, furnished accurate dynamic images of pore translocation processes, and predicted signals. The third case study involves the development of nanoscale lipid bilayers for the study of embedded membrane proteins and cholesterol. Molecular modeling tested scaffold proteins, redesigned apolipoproteins found in mammalian plasma that hold the discoidal membranes in the proper shape, and predicted the assembly as well as final structure of the nanodiscs. In entirely new technological areas such as bionanotechnology, qualitative concepts, pictures and suggestions are sorely needed; these three case studies document that molecular modeling can serve a critical role in this respect, even though it may still fall short on quantitative precision.

Transport of semiconductor nanocrystals by kinesin molecular motors.

Abstract: Kinesin molecular motors harness the energy of ATP hydrolysis to transport cargo such as vesicles and organelles along intracellular microtubules. Purified components of this system can be used for nanoscale transport by integrating the motors and filaments into MEMS and NEMS devices. Hence, it is important to understand the function of these proteins for biological, therapeutic, and nanotechnological applications. Existing techniques for studying motors include the microtubule gliding assay, optical traps, and ATPase assays. Single-molecule visualization is crucial for investigating the motor mechanism and their ability to move and assemble nanoparticles. In this report, we synthesize semiconductor nanocrystals, attach them to kinesins, demonstrate that single motors can be visualized by simple epifluorescence or evanescent wave microscopy, and show that motor function is unaffected by particle functionalization. Single kinesin motors functionalized with green fluorescent protein (GFP) or synthetic fluorophores can be imaged by total internal reflection fluorescence (TIRF) microscopy, and their position resolved to within nearly one nanometer. By tracking kinesins in which one of the two motor domains (heads) was labeled, this technique was used to show that at limiting ATP concentrations each head takes 16-nm steps along a microtubule, ruling out the “inchworm” model of kinesin motility. However, because the spatial resolution is based on the number of photons collected, the temporal resolution using these fluorophores is limited to roughly 300 ms. Brighter fluorophores are needed to measure faster events. While fluorescent beads have higher signal intensities, their size alters the diffusion properties of the tagged molecule and complicates intracellular experiments. Semiconductor nanocrystals (quantum dots) have great potential in biological imaging due to their small size ( 5– 10 nm radius with functionalization), high quantum yield, large excitation band, and negligible photobleaching. Quantum dots with different optical properties can be synthesized with ease by growing them to different sizes, and single fluorophores can be visualized by simple epifluorescence microscopy rather than the evanescent wave microscopy that is generally required for GFP and other synthetic fluorophores. In addition, they can be introduced into cells by a variety of methods. By synthesizing our own quantum dots, we have the advantage of being able to separately tune the emission wavelength and control the surface functionality. The goal of this study is to functionalize quantum dots with active kinesin biomolecular motors and transport these dots along immobilized microtubules. This new labeling approach will open up a number of avenues of investigation. First, it will enable more precise tracking of motors in vitro to understand motor stepping and detachment under controlled conditions. Second, these bright particles should enable individual kinesins to be followed in cells, which is very difficult with current labeling procedures. Third, quantum dots can be used as models for biomotor-driven nanoparticle assembly in vitro. More and more materials are being synthesized at nanoscale geometries that confer novel and enhanced functionality. However, despite the success of various self-assembly processes, organization of these nanoparticles into configurations far from their thermodynamic minima is a continuing hurdle. Because kinesins are specialized transport motors that have evolved to organize the intracellular environment, they provide a powerful tool for transport and assembly of synthetic nanomaterials. Harnessing these biological motors for this purpose requires a model system that can be easily visualized and quantified. At present, microtubules that have been coated with quantum dots have been shown to move along immobilized motors so long as the region of functionalization is limited. Furthermore, in a related and impressive recent study, individual myosin V motors were labeled with a different-colored quantum dot on each head to definitively show that the two heads alternately step along an immobilized actin filament. Here, we demonstrate for the first time that individual kinesin motors can be functionalized with quantum dots, and their movement along microtubules easily tracked by either TIRF or epifluorescence microscopy. Using quantum dots for this purpose comes with a number of hurdles. Generally, quantum-dot cores are synthesized in an organic phase and usually with cytotoxic compounds, so for biological applications the cores need to be protected and transferred to an aqueous phase by coating with a shell of a second semiconductor with a larger bandgap and with protective ligands. Additional ligands must be [*] G. Muthukrishnan, Dr. W. O. Hancock Department of Bioengineering, 229 Hallowell Bldg. The Pennsylvania State University University Park, PA 16802 (USA) Fax: (+1)814-863-0490 E-mail: mbw@chem.psu.edu

Self-assembling nanopeptides become a new type of biomaterial

Abstract: Combining physics, engineering, chemistry and biology, we can now design, synthesize and fabricate biological nano-materials at the molecular scale using self-assembling peptide systems. These peptides have been used for fabrication of nanomaterials including nanofibers, nanotubes and vesicles, nanometer-thick surface coating and nanowires. Some of these peptides are used for stabilizing membrane proteins, and others provide a more permissive environment for cell growth, repair of tissues in regenerative medicine, and delivering genes and drugs. Self-assembling peptides are also useful for fabricating a wide spectrum of exquisitely fine architectures, new materials and nanodevices for nanobiotechnology and a variety of engineering. These systems lie at the interface between molecular biology, chemistry, materials science and engineering. Molecular self-assembly will harness nature's enormous power to benefit other disciplines and society.

A Single-Molecule Förster Resonance Energy Transfer Analysis of Fluorescent DNA–Protein Conjugates for Nanobiotechnology

Abstract: The development of nanobiotechnological devices requires the ability to build various components with nanometer accuracy. DNA is a well-established nanoscale building block that self assembles due to specific interactions that are encoded in its sequence. Recently, it has become possible to couple proteins to DNA, thereby expanding the capabilities of DNA for use with molecular photonics and bioelectronics. Here, we present the design and characterization of a supramolecular Forster resonance energy transfer (FRET) system by using a fluorescent protein bound to single-stranded DNA (ssDNA), a fluorophore attached to a second ssDNA molecule, and a complementary strand for hybridizing the two fluorophores together. The FRET efficiency was studied by using both ensemble and single-pair FRET measurements. The distance between the two fluorophores was determined from the single-pair FRET efficiency and could be described by a simple cylindrical model for the DNA. Hence, DNA can be used as a scaffold for positioning fluorescent proteins, as well as traditional fluorophores, with nanometer accuracy and shows great potential for use in the future of nanobiotechnology.

Nanotechnology in medicine

Abstract: Nanotechnology will play a key role in the post-genome sequencing era, since even revolutionary methods will be able to develop on a nanodevice, and it is applicable to the analysis of DNA, mRNA, protein, and other biomolecules. Recent progress in nanotechnology based on nanofabrication, nanocoating, and molecular nanotechnology is expanding the possibility of nanobiotechnology from genomics and proteomics to medical applications, including preventive medicine based on point-of-care test. Nanotechnology including quantum dot, photonic crystal, DNA chip as well as biodevice is applied to the analysis of genome network in some disease related cells. Genes related to important biological function of cell are identified by stimulating with different drugs and the genome networks for these cell reactions are predicted by computer software. Nanotechnology has been proved to be extremely important for future personalized medicine and systems biology.

Microbial bionanotechnology : biological self-assembly systems and biopolymer-based nanostructures

Abstract: Part 1: Biopolymer-Based Structures 1. Biopolyester Particles Produced by Microbes or Using Polyester Synthases: Self-Assembly and Potential Applications 2. Bionanofabrication: A Tool for Creating Unique Structures through in Vitro Polymer Synthesis 3. Polyhydroxyalkanoates in Nanobiotechnology: Application to Protein-Protein Interaction Studies 4. Cyanophycin Inclusions: Biosynthesis and Applications 5. Biomineralisation of Magnetosomes in Bacteria: Nanoparticles with Potential Application 6. Microbial Production of Alginates: Self-Assembly and Applications Part 2: Protein- and DNA-Based Structures 7. Bacteriophages: Self-Assembly and Applications 8. Molecular Biomimetics: Linking Polypeptides to Inorganic Structures 9. Bacterial Spores in Bionanotechnology 10. Supramolecular Assembly Using the Natural Specificities of Biological Macromolecules 11. Bacterial Protein Complexes with Potential Applications in Nanotechnology 12. S-Layer Proteins: Potential Applications in Nano(bio)technology 13. Bacteriorhodopsin

Nanobiotechnology in drug delivery

Abstract: Nanotechnology is a novel branch of science that deals with the characterization, creation, and utilization of materials, devices, and systems at the nanometer scale. Advances in nanotechnology are spurring a revolution in science, engineering and therapeutics, particularly in drug delivery. Targeted delivery of therapeutic molecules is the most desirable feature of an effective drug therapy. Conventional chemotherapy faces major drawbacks such as poor specificity of the drug, increased adverse effects, and reduced therapeutic efficacy. Application of nanotechnology in drug delivery systems has provided new avenues for engineering materials with molecular precision. This aids in fabricating nanoscale delivery devices that combine diagnostic and therapeutic actions for immediate administration of therapy. Nanotechnology can generate a library of sophisticated drug delivery systems that integrate molecular recognition and site-specific delivery of the therapeutic agents. It formulates therapeutic agents in biocompatible nanomaterials such as nanoparticles, nanocapsules, liposomes, and micelles. This review focuses on some of the nano-sized systems used in drug delivery and discusses the potential applications of nanotechnology in the delivery of macromolecular therapeutic agents.

Biological and biomedical nanotechnology

Abstract: Biomolecular Sensing for Cancer Diagnostics Using Carbon Nanotubes.- Microspheres for Drug Delivery.- Nanoscale Polymer Fabrication for Biomedical Applications.- 3D Micro- and Nanofabrication and Their Medical Application.- Sacrificial Oxide Layer for Drug Delivery.- Carbon Nanotube Biosensors.- Characterization Methods for Quality Control of Nanopore and Nanochannel Membranes.- Magnetic Nanoparticles for MR Imaging.- Polymer Design for Nonviral Gene Delivery.- Dip-Pen Technologies for Biomolecular Devices.- Engineered Inorganic-Binding Polypeptides for Bionanotechnology.- Dynamic Nanodevices Based on Protein Molecular Motors.- Nanodevices in Biomedical Applications.- Modeling Biomolecular Transport at the Nanoscale.- Nanotechnology in Cancer Drug Therapy: A Biocomputational Approach.- Nanomechanics and Tissue Pathology.

Better Tissue Engineering Materials through the Use of Nanotechnology

Abstract: Nanotechnology is defined as the use of materials with at least one dimension less than 100 nm. Although nanotechnology has revolutionized many fields to date, it use in medical applications remains at it infancy. This manuscript describes recent promising studies made towards increasing tissue regeneration through the use of nano compared to conventional materials.

Editorial: DNA-based nanoarchitectures and nanomachines.

Abstract: The emerging area of DNA-based architectures and machines promises exciting opportunities and will impact on the future of DNA structures in nanobiotechnology.

Nanobiotechnology: small talk.

Abstract: Nanobiotechnology is a growing field, but will it emulate the biotech boom? Virginia Gewin investigates.

Engineered Inorganic-Binding Polypeptides for Bionanotechnology

Abstract: Future biomimetic systems, developed either for nanobiotechnology or nanotechnology, could include protein(s) in its assembly, formation, and, perhaps, in its final structure as an integral component leading to specific and controllable functions. In the new field of molecular biomimetics, a true marriage of traditional physical and biological fields, hybrid materials could potentially be assembled from the molecular level using the recognition and assembly properties of proteins that specifically bind to inorganics [1]. Molecular biomimetics offers three simultaneous solutions to the problem of the control and fabrication of large-scale nanostructures and ordered assemblies of materials in two- and three-dimensions. The first is that inorganic-binding peptides and proteins are selected and designed at the molecular level and through genetics. This allows control at the lowest dimensional scale possible. The second is that such proteins can be used as linkers or molecular erector sets to join synthetic entities, including nanoparticles, functional polymers, or other nanostructures on molecular templates. Finally, the third solution is that the biological molecules self- and co-assemble into ordered nano-structures. This ensures a robust assembly process for the construction of complex nano-, and possibly hierarchical-structures, similar to those found in nature.

Micro- and nanoengineering the 3-dimensional environment of cells in culture

Abstract: ..................................................................................................................V Zusammenfassung................................................................................................ IX Acknowledments .................................................................................................XV 1 Scope and Aim of the Thesis .......................................................................... 1 1.1 Background.......................................................................................................... 1 1.2 Aim ...................................................................................................................... 2 1.3 Scope ................................................................................................................... 5 2 Introduction..................................................................................................... 9 2.1 General................................................................................................................. 9 2.2 Cells on surfaces .................................................................................................. 9 2.3 Cells on patterned surfaces ................................................................................ 11 2.4 Mechanotransduction......................................................................................... 15 2.5 The effect of dimensionality of cell adhesion 2-D vs. 3-D ............................. 18 2.6 Microdevices for the culturing of cells .............................................................. 21 2.7 On form and function......................................................................................... 22 References...................................................................................................................... 25 3 Microfabrication and Replication Methods ............................................... 33 3.

Lipid membranes for the fabrication of functional micro- and nano-structures

Abstract: The central goal of this thesis work is to fabricate novel, functional fluorescent nanostructures in confined systems offered by phospholipid membranes, which are known to have highly ordered, thermotropic and lyotropic structures. In separate approaches, we have used three different lipid systems: multilamellar planar lipid membranes, unilamellar vesicular membranes as well as lipid monolayers for the development of functional fluorescent nano-, micro- and meso-scopic structures. Techniques like fluorescence microscopy, single particle imaging, electron microscopy, electron diffraction were used to achieve fundamental understanding of the resulting structures. Multilayer stacks of phospholipid membranes have been used as an effective template for the growth of high aspect ratio fluorescent nanowires. The room temperature synthesis was achieved in the confined nanometer-sized interlamellar water space of lipid multilayers where supersaturating CdCl2 concentrations were induced by acidification leading to controlled unidirectional growth of nanowires. The possibility to render the nanowires fluorescent by doping with CdS quantum dots (QDs) and the light waveguiding along hundreds of micrometers together with the possibility of lateral manipulation make these nanowires attractive candidates for future optoelectronic applications. Novel organic-inorganic functional nanocontainers have been designed and tested by making use of vesicle forming lipid bilayers in combination with semiconductor QDs. Hydrophobic QDs can be integrated into bilayers of lipid vesicles and such lipid/QD hybrid vesicles are capable to fuse with live cells, thereby stain the cell's plasma membrane selectively with fluorescent QDs and transfer the vesicle's cargo into the cell. Modification of the membrane of such hybrid vesicles on the other hand, made them capable to enter the cytoplasm of live cells. Additionally, these hybrid vesicles were found extremely useful for long-term model membrane imaging studies. The results described in this thesis imply that cell and lipid membranes can integrate any kind of hydrophobic nanoparticle whose size matches the membrane thickness, opening novel possibilities to manipulate them as individuals or in ensemble with wide-ranging applications for nanobiotechnology. In a further step, the ability of phospholipid molecules to exhibit lamellar to non-lamellar transition using external stimuli enabled a directed self-assembly of QDs into mesoscale fluorescent structures. An easy and versatile method for the surface modification of TOPO coated CdSe QDs using 1,2-dipalmitoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphatidic acid (DPPA) have been achieved. DPPA predominantly form non-lamellar phases when dispersed in water, for example, upon addition of Ca2+ or at a pH below 6 are known to form hexagonal II phases. This particular property of DPPA has been exploited to form mesoscale self-assemblies of QD based structures both in solution and in confined systems. Potential applications include the detection or removal of Ca2+ ions in attoliter volumes, the construction of functional devices where QDs are reversibly organized in different forms as well as use of fluorescently labeled DPPA molecules for cellular studies using fluorescence microscopy.

Bio Nano Process: Fabrication of Nanoelectronic Devices Using Protein Supramolecules

Abstract: A biological method for making the components of nano-electronic devices is proposed, which is named bio nano process (BNP). Using the BNP, the nanodot memory nodes of the floating gate memory were fabricated and excellent endurance and retention time were demonstrated