Showing papers on "Necking published in 2015"

On localization and void coalescence as a precursor to ductile fracture

Abstract: Two modes of plastic flow localization commonly occur in the ductile fracture of structural metals undergoing damage and failure by the mechanism involving void nucleation, growth and coalescence. The first mode consists of a macroscopic localization, usually linked to the softening effect of void nucleation and growth, in either a normal band or a shear band where the thickness of the band is comparable to void spacing. The second mode is coalescence with plastic strain localizing to the ligaments between voids by an internal necking process. The ductility of a material tied to the strain at macroscopic localization, as this marks the limit of uniform straining at the macroscopic scale. The question addressed is whether macroscopic localization occurs prior to void coalescence or whether the two occur simultaneously. The relation between these two modes of localization is studied quantitatively in this paper using a three-dimensional elastic-plastic computational model representing a doubly periodic array of voids within a band confined between two semi-infinite outer blocks of the same material but without voids. At sufficiently high stress triaxiality, a clear separation exists between the two modes of localization. At lower stress triaxialities, the model predicts that the onset of macroscopic localization and coalescence occur simultaneously.

Hardness−strength relationships in fine and ultra-fine grained metals processed through constrained groove pressing

Abstract: Fine grained (FG) and ultra-fine grained (UFG) materials processed by severe plastic deformation exhibit beneficial hardness and tensile properties. Constrained groove pressing (CGP) were employed for fabrication of FG and UFG sheet metals and accomplished into different types of metals and alloys, such as commercial pure aluminum, AA3003 aluminum alloy, commercial pure copper, nickel, titanium and low carbon steels. Tensile and hardness characteristics in the FG and UFG sheets have been assessed with the aim of evaluating the hardness−strength relationship frequently established for coarse-grained metals and alloys ( σ U T S / H V = 3.45 ). However, it was revealed that the FG and UFG materials do not obey widely used hardness−strength relationships in the conventional coarse grained structures. A new multiplicity factor less than 3, depending on the chemical composition of processed materials, is proposed in this study. This is attributed to different strain hardening response of the FG and UFG materials with slight work hardening before necking instability. In fine grained and ultra-fine grained structures failure does not occur in (or right after) the onset of necking point. That is, tensile deformation sustains significantly up to fracture point due to the role of superplasticity mechanisms.

Microstructures and mechanical properties of compositionally complex Co-free FeNiMnCr18 FCC solid solution alloy

Abstract: Recently, a structurally-simple but compositionally-complex FeNiCoMnCr high entropy alloy was found to have excellent mechanical properties (e.g., high strength and ductility). To understand the potential of using high entropy alloys as structural materials for advanced nuclear reactor and power plants, it is necessary to have a thorough understanding of their structural stability and mechanical properties degradation under neutron irradiation. This requires us to develop a similar model alloy without Co because material with Co will make post-neutron-irradiation testing difficult due to the production of the 60Co radioisotope. To achieve this goal, a FCC-structured single-phase alloy with a composition of FeNiMnCr18 was successfully developed. This near-equiatomic FeNiMnCr18 alloy has good malleability and its microstructure can be controlled by thermomechanical processing. By rolling and annealing, the as-cast elongated-grained-microstructure is replaced by homogeneous equiaxed grains. The mechanical properties (e.g., strength and ductility) of the FeNiMnCr18 alloy are comparable to those of the equiatomic FeNiCoMnCr high entropy alloy. Both strength and ductility increase with decreasing deformation temperature, with the largest difference occurring between 293 and 77 K. Extensive twin-bands which are bundles of numerous individual twins are observed when it is tensile-fractured at 77 K. No twin bands are detected by EBSD for materials deformed at 293 K and higher. The unusual temperature-dependencies of UTS and uniform elongation could be caused by the development of the dense twin substructure, twin-dislocation interactions and the interactions between primary and secondary twinning systems which result in a microstructure refinement and hence cause enhanced strain hardening and postponed necking.

Competition between dynamic recovery and recrystallization during hot deformation for TC18 titanium alloy

Abstract: The competition between dynamic recovery (DRV) and recrystallization (DRX) during hot deformation has been investigated in the present paper. Isothermal compression experiment of TC18 titanium alloy was conducted for verification. The hot deformation mechanism for TC18 alloy has been identified as dislocation evolution from the stress exponent correspondence. Suitable descriptions to dislocation evolution under DRV/DRX have been obtained and validated by stress variation with DRX critical strain as the transition. Work-hardening behaviors correspond to the competition between DRX/DRV and segmented functions were constructed to describe the variation. The influence of α/β phase transformation and DRX evolution on dislocation evolution and work-hardening behaviors has been characterized with the Kocks–Mecking model developed. Power dissipation efficiency and microstructure observation were utilized to demonstrate the dependence of dynamic softening mechanism. The β necking phenomenon in DRX grains has been associated with the periodic competition between DRX and DRV.

On the radiative properties of soot aggregates part 1: Necking and overlapping

Abstract: There is a strong interest in accurately modelling the radiative properties of soot aggregates (also known as black carbon particles) emitted from combustion systems and fires to gain improved understanding of the role of black carbon to global warming. This study conducted a systematic investigation of the effects of overlapping and necking between neighbouring primary particles on the radiative properties of soot aggregates using the discrete dipole approximation. The degrees of overlapping and necking are quantified by the overlapping and necking parameters. Realistic soot aggregates were generated numerically by constructing overlapping and necking to fractal aggregates formed by point-touch primary particles simulated using a diffusion-limited cluster aggregation algorithm. Radiative properties (differential scattering, absorption, total scattering, specific extinction, asymmetry factor and single scattering albedo) were calculated using the experimentally measured soot refractive index over the spectral range of 266–1064 nm for 9 combinations of the overlapping and necking parameters. Overlapping and necking affect significantly the absorption and scattering properties of soot aggregates, especially in the near UV spectrum due to the enhanced multiple scattering effects within an aggregate. By using correctly modified aggregate properties (fractal dimension, prefactor, primary particle radius, and the number of primary particle) and by accounting for the effects of multiple scattering, the simple Rayleigh–Debye–Gans theory for fractal aggregates can reproduce reasonably accurate radiative properties of realistic soot aggregates.

Necking and notch strengthening in metallic glass with symmetric sharp-and-deep notches.

Abstract: Notched metallic glasses (MGs) have received much attention recently due to their intriguing mechanical properties compared to their unnotched counterparts, but so far no fundamental understanding of the correlation between failure behavior and notch depth/sharpness exists. Using molecular dynamics simulations, we report necking and large notch strengthening in MGs with symmetric sharp-and-deep notches. Our work reveals that the failure mode and strength of notched MGs are strongly dependent on the notch depth and notch sharpness. By increasing the notch depth and the notch sharpness, we observe a failure mode transition from shear banding to necking, and also a large notch strengthening. This necking is found to be caused by the combined effects of large stress gradient at the notch roots and the impingement and subsequent arrest of shear bands emanating from the notch roots. The present study not only shows the failure mode transition and the large notch strengthening in notched MGs, but also provides significant insights into the deformation and failure mechanisms of notched MGs that may offer new strategies for the design and engineering of MGs.

Effect of cryorolling on the microstructure and tensile properties of bulk nano-austenitic stainless steel

Abstract: We report the synthesis of nanostructured austenitic AISI 304L stainless steel (SS) through cryorolling (CR) and reversion annealing in the temperature range of 700–800 °C. Severe CR at sub-zero temperature promotes twinning in γ-austenite, which transform into α׳-martensite with lath thickness of 50–100 nm. Whereas, 50–300 nm size γ-grains recrystallize in nano-twinned α׳ through reversion annealing as confirmed by transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and electron back scattered diffraction (EBSD) imaging. The evolution of highly processable bulk nano-austenitic SS with bimodal grain size distribution on achieving high strength (~1295 MPa), large tensile ductility (~0.47), and true necking strain of 0.59, have been discussed.

On Void Coalescence Under Combined Tension and Shear

Abstract: A micromechanics-based yield criterion is developed for a porous ductile material deforming by localized plasticity in combined tension and shear. The new criterion is primarily intended to model void coalescence by internal necking or internal shearing. The model is obtained by limit analysis and homogenization of a cylindrical cell containing a coaxial cylindrical void of finite height. Plasticity in parts of the matrix is modeled using rate-independent J2 flow theory. It is shown that for the discontinuous, yet kinematically admissible trial velocity fields used in the limit analysis procedure, the overall yield domain exhibits curved parts and flat parts with no vertices. Model predictions are compared with available finite-element (FE) based estimates of limit loads on cubic cells. In addition, a heuristic modification to the model is proposed in the limit case of pennyshape cracks to enable its application to materials failing after limited void growth as well as to situations of shear-induced void closure. [DOI: 10.1115/1.4030326]

Yielding Behaviour of Martensite in Steel

Abstract: Although martensite is recognised as a very strong phase in carbon steels, its initial yielding commences at low stresses and the tensile stress-strain curve shows a smooth, rounded form. Evidence is presented from x-ray diffraction to show that this behaviour is due to the presence of intra-granular stresses that are residues after the shear transformation from austenite to martensite. These internal stresses are reduced in magnitude by plastic deformation and also by tempering. Reduction of internal stress due to plasticity is shown by a decrease in XRD line broadening after deformation. A simple model is presented in which the stress-strain behaviour is controlled by relaxation of the internal stresses almost up to the point of the ultimate tensile strength. It demonstrates that only a very small fraction of the material remaining in a purely elastic state provides a large stabilising effect resisting necking. A corollary of this is that the uniform elongation of martensitic steel actually increases with increase in the strength level. Effects of heat treatment are also reproduced in the model, including the increase in conventional yield stress (Rp 0.2 ) that occurs after low temperature tempering.

Microstructural and mechanical behaviors of nano-SiC-reinforced AA7075-O FSW joints prepared through two passes

Abstract: In this paper, a threaded tapered pin tool was employed to fabricate a 2-pass friction stir welded (FSWed) joint. To investigate the benefits of nano-sized SiC particles on microstructural and mechanical properties of the joint, the experiment was repeated while SiC particles had been inserted along the joint line. In another joint, a square pin tool was applied in the second pass to evaluate the effectiveness of switching pin geometry between passes on the aforementioned properties. Microstructural features including grain size, second phase particles and reinforcement distribution were examined via optical and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) techniques. In addition to satisfactory connections between SiC particles and the matrix, the most homogenous particles distribution was observed in the specimen FSWed with both pin tools. This observation was further supported by atomic force microscopy (AFM) examination. Additionally, the foregoing joint demonstrated the maximum tensile strength which was synonymous with its smallest grain size. During tensile testing, SiC-free joint and SiC-reinforced ones fractured from stir zone (SZ) and base metal, respectively. Moreover, SiC-free joint showed necking phenomenon. SEM results showed that the SiC-reinforced specimens possessed ductile fracture morphologies. On the other hand, SiC-free specimen showed a quasi-cleavage fracture mode confirming its moderate percent elongation. In the meantime, SiC-reinforced specimens exhibited superior hardness level to SiC-free specimen.

Coalescence of voids by internal necking: Theoretical estimates and numerical results

Abstract: Upper-bound estimates and supposedly exact numerical results are obtained for the limit loads associated with cylindrical cells containing voids and subjected to boundary conditions that are consistent with post-localization kinematics in porous plastic solids. When supplemented with evolution equations for the microstructural variables, the results can be used in the modeling of void coalescence by internal necking in ductile materials.

Abrupt tectonics and rapid slab detachment with grain damage

Abstract: A simple model for necking and detachment of subducting slabs is developed to include the coupling between grain-sensitive rheology and grain-size evolution with damage. Necking is triggered by thickened buoyant crust entrained into a subduction zone, in which case grain damage accelerates necking and allows for relatively rapid slab detachment, i.e., within 1 My, depending on the size of the crustal plug. Thick continental crustal plugs can cause rapid necking while smaller plugs characteristic of ocean plateaux cause slower necking; oceanic lithosphere with normal or slightly thickened crust subducts without necking. The model potentially explains how large plateaux or continental crust drawn into subduction zones can cause slab loss and rapid changes in plate motion and/or induce abrupt continental rebound.

Suppression of Shear Banding and Transition to Necking and Homogeneous Flow in Nanoglass Nanopillars

Abstract: In order to improve the properties of metallic glasses (MG) a new type of MG structure, composed of nanoscale grains, referred to as nanoglass (NG), has been recently proposed. Here, we use large-scale molecular dynamics (MD) simulations of tensile loading to investigate the deformation and failure mechanisms of Cu64Zr36 NG nanopillars with large, experimentally accessible, 50 nm diameter. Our results reveal NG ductility and failure by necking below the average glassy grain size of 20 nm, in contrast to brittle failure by shear band propagation in MG nanopillars. Moreover, the results predict substantially larger ductility in NG nanopillars compared with previous predictions of MD simulations of bulk NG models with columnar grains. The results, in excellent agreement with experimental data, highlight the substantial enhancement of plasticity induced in experimentally relevant MG samples by the use of nanoglass architectures and point out to exciting novel applications of these materials.

Electron Beam Induced Artifacts During in situ TEM Deformation of Nanostructured Metals

Abstract: A critical assumption underlying in situ transmission electron microscopy studies is that the electron beam (e-beam) exposure does not fundamentally alter the intrinsic deformation behavior of the materials being probed. Here, we show that e-beam exposure causes increased dislocation activation and marked stress relaxation in aluminum and gold films spanning a range of thicknesses (80-400 nanometers) and grain sizes (50-220 nanometers). Furthermore, the e-beam induces anomalous sample necking, which unusually depends more on the e-beam diameter than intensity. Notably, the stress relaxation in both aluminum and gold occurs at beam energies well below their damage thresholds. More remarkably, the stress relaxation and/or sample necking is significantly more pronounced at lower accelerating voltages (120 kV versus 200 kV) in both the metals. These observations in aluminum and gold, two metals with highly dissimilar atomic weights and properties, indicate that e-beam exposure can cause anomalous behavior in a broad spectrum of nanostructured materials, and simultaneously suggest a strategy to minimize such artifacts.

2013 Koiter Medal Paper: Crack-Tip Fields and Toughness of Two-Dimensional Elastoplastic Lattices

Abstract: Copyright © 2015 by ASME. The dependence of the fracture toughness of two-dimensional (2D) elastoplastic lattices upon relative density and ductility of cell wall material is obtained for four topologies: the triangular lattice, kagome lattice, diamond lattice, and the hexagonal lattice. Crack-tip fields are explored, including the plastic zone size and crack opening displacement. The cell walls are treated as beams, with a material response given by the Ramberg-Osgood law. There is choice in the criterion for crack advance, and two extremes are considered: (i) the maximum local tensile strain (LTS) anywhere in the lattice attains the failure strain or (ii) the average tensile strain (ATS) across the cell wall attains the failure strain (which can be identified with the necking strain). The dependence of macroscopic fracture toughness upon failure strain, strain hardening exponent, and relative density is obtained for each lattice, and scaling laws are derived. The role of imperfections in degrading the fracture toughness is assessed by random movement of the nodes. The paper provides a strategy for obtaining lattices of high toughness at low density, thereby filling gaps in material property space.

Strain rate dependent deformation and failure behavior of laser welded DP780 steel joint under dynamic tensile loading

Abstract: Laser welded DP steel joints are used widely in the automotive industry for weight reduction. Understanding the deformation and fracture behavior of the base metal (BM) and its welded joint (WJ), especially at high strain rates, is critical for the design of vehicle structures. This paper is concerned with the effects of strain rate on the tensile properties, deformation and fracture behavior of the laser welded DP780 steel joint. Quasi-static and dynamic tensile tests were performed on the WJ and BM of the DP780 steel using an electromechanical universal testing machine and a high-speed tensile testing machine over a wide range of strain rate (0.0001–1142 s −1 ). The microstructure change and microhardness distribution of the DP780 steel after laser welding were examined. Digital image correlation (DIC) and high-speed photography were employed for the strain measurement of the DP780 WJ during dynamic tensile tests. The DP780 WJ is a heterogeneous structure with hardening in fusion zone (FZ) and inner heat-affected zone (HAZ), and softening in outer HAZ. The DP780 BM and WJ exhibit positive strain rate dependence on the YS and UTS, which is smaller at lower strain rates and becomes larger with increasing strain rate, while ductility in terms of total elongation (TE) tends to increase under dynamic loading. Laser welding leads to an overall reduction in the ductility of the DP780 steel. However, the WJ exhibits a similar changing trend of the ductility to that of the BM with respect to the strain rate over the whole strain rate range. As for the DP780 WJ, the distance of tensile failure location from the weld centerline decreases with increasing strain rate. The typical ductile failure characteristics of the DP780 BM and WJ do not change with increasing strain rate. DIC measurements reveal that the strain localization starts even before the maximum load is attained in the DP780 WJ and gradual transition from uniform strains to severely localized strains occurs at high strain rates. The diffuse necking of the DP780 WJ occurs earlier during the tensile deformation process at higher strain rates under dynamic loadings.

Failure in single point incremental forming

Abstract: This paper revisits the formability limits of single point incremental forming (SPIF) in the light of fundamental concepts of plasticity and ductile fracture mechanics. The paper has a twofold objective of investigating the limiting strain pairs at fracture in parts showing and not showing signs of necking before cracking and of demonstrating that failure by fracture occurs by tension in crack opening mode I. The overall methodology is based on the combination of circle grid analysis, measurement of the ‘gauge length’ strains at fracture and determination of fracture toughness from experimental tests performed with truncated conical SPIF parts and double edge notched test specimens loaded in tension. The work is performed in aluminium AA1050-H111 and is a step towards comprehension of the circumstances under which failure will occur in SPIF. It is shown that fracture strain pairs of truncated conical parts, fracture forming limit lines (FFLs) determined from conventional sheet formability tests and fracture toughness in crack opening mode I can be merged to create a new understanding of plastic flow and failure by fracture above the onset of necking.

Ductility and work hardening in nano-sized metallic glasses

Abstract: In-situ nano-tensile experiments on 70 nm-diameter free-standing electroplated NiP metallic glass nanostructures reveal tensile true strains of ∼18%, an amount comparable to compositionally identical 100 nm-diameter focused ion beam samples and ∼3 times greater than 100 nm-diameter electroplated samples. Simultaneous in-situ observations and stress-strain data during post-elastic deformation reveal necking and work hardening, features uncharacteristic for metallic glasses. The evolution of free volume within molecular dynamics-simulated samples suggests a free surface-mediated relaxation mechanism in nano-sized metallic glasses.