Showing papers on "Night vision published in 2014"

Thermal cameras and applications: a survey

Abstract: Thermal cameras are passive sensors that capture the infrared radiation emitted by all objects with a temperature above absolute zero. This type of camera was originally developed as a surveillance and night vision tool for the military, but recently the price has dropped, significantly opening up a broader field of applications. Deploying this type of sensor in vision systems eliminates the illumination problems of normal greyscale and RGB cameras. This survey provides an overview of the current applications of thermal cameras. Applications include animals, agriculture, buildings, gas detection, industrial, and military applications, as well as detection, tracking, and recognition of humans. Moreover, this survey describes the nature of thermal radiation and the technology of thermal cameras.

Poisson Noise Reduction with Non-local PCA

Abstract: Photon-limited imaging arises when the number of photons collected by a sensor array is small relative to the number of detector elements. Photon limitations are an important concern for many applications such as spectral imaging, night vision, nuclear medicine, and astronomy. Typically a Poisson distribution is used to model these observations, and the inherent heteroscedasticity of the data combined with standard noise removal methods yields significant artifacts. This paper introduces a novel denoising algorithm for photon-limited images which combines elements of dictionary learning and sparse patch-based representations of images. The method employs both an adaptation of Principal Component Analysis (PCA) for Poisson noise and recently developed sparsity-regularized convex optimization algorithms for photon-limited images. A comprehensive empirical evaluation of the proposed method helps characterize the performance of this approach relative to other state-of-the-art denoising methods. The results reveal that, despite its conceptual simplicity, Poisson PCA-based denoising appears to be highly competitive in very low light regimes.

Diagnostic Sensitivity and Specificity of Dark Adaptometry for Detection of Age-Related Macular Degeneration

Abstract: Purpose. Difficulty with night vision is a common complaint of patients with age-related macular degeneration (AMD). Consistent with this complaint, dark adaptation (DA) is substantially impaired in these patients. Because of the severity of the deficit, measurement of DA has been suggested as a means for the diagnosis of AMD. Previous methods for measurement of DA were time intensive (>30 minutes), which made them unsuitable for clinical use. This study evaluated a rapid DA test (≤6.5 minutes) for the detection of AMD.

On cross spectral periocular recognition

Abstract: This paper introduces the challenge of cross spectral periocular matching. The proposed algorithm utilizes neural network for learning the variabilities caused by two different spectrums. Two neural networks are first trained on each spectrum individually and then combined such that, by using the cross spectral training data, they jointly learn the cross spectral variability. To evaluate the performance, a cross spectral periocular database is prepared that contains images pertaining to visible night vision and near infrared spectrums. The proposed combined neural network architecture, on the cross spectral database, shows improved performance compared to existing feature descriptors and cross domain algorithms.

Müller cells separate between wavelengths to improve day vision with minimal effect upon night vision

Abstract: Vision starts with the absorption of light by the retinal photoreceptors-cones and rods. However, due to the 'inverted' structure of the retina, the incident light must propagate through reflecting and scattering cellular layers before reaching the photoreceptors. It has been recently suggested that Muller cells function as optical fibres in the retina, transferring light illuminating the retinal surface onto the cone photoreceptors. Here we show that Muller cells are wavelength-dependent wave-guides, concentrating the green-red part of the visible spectrum onto cones and allowing the blue-purple part to leak onto nearby rods. This phenomenon is observed in the isolated retina and explained by a computational model, for the guinea pig and the human parafoveal retina. Therefore, light propagation by Muller cells through the retina can be considered as an integral part of the first step in the visual process, increasing photon absorption by cones while minimally affecting rod-mediated vision.

Microglia activation in a model of retinal degeneration and TUDCA neuroprotective effects

Abstract: Retinitis pigmentosa is a heterogeneous group of inherited neurodegenerative retinal disorders characterized by a progressive peripheral vision loss and night vision difficulties, subsequently leading to central vision impairment. Chronic microglia activation is associated with various neurodegenerative diseases including retinitis pigmentosa. The objective of this study was to quantify microglia activation in the retina of P23H rats, an animal model of retinitis pigmentosa, and to evaluate the therapeutic effects of TUDCA (tauroursodeoxycholic acid), which has been described as a neuroprotective compound. For this study, homozygous P23H line 3 and Sprague-Dawley (SD) rats were injected weekly with TUDCA (500 mg/kg, ip) or vehicle (saline) from 20 days to 4 months old. Vertical retinal sections and whole-mount retinas were immunostained for specific markers of microglial cells (anti-CD11b, anti-Iba1 and anti-MHC-II). Microglial cell morphology was analyzed and the number of retinal microglial was quantified. Microglial cells in the SD rat retinas were arranged in regular mosaics homogenously distributed within the plexiform and ganglion cell layers. In the P23H rat retina, microglial cells increased in number in all layers compared with control SD rat retinas, preserving the regular mosaic distribution. In addition, a large number of amoeboid CD11b-positive cells were observed in the P23H rat retina, even in the subretinal space. Retinas of TUDCA-treated P23H animals exhibited lower microglial cell number in all layers and absence of microglial cells in the subretinal space. These results report novel TUDCA anti-inflammatory actions, with potential therapeutic implications for neurodegenerative diseases, including retinitis pigmentosa.

Experimental Flight Testing of Night Vision Imaging Systems in Military Fighter Aircraft

Abstract: This paper describes the research and experimental flight test activities conducted by the Italian Air Force Official Test Centre (RSV), in collaboration with Alenia Aermacchi and Cranfield University, in order to confer night vision imaging systems (NVIS) capability to the Italian TORNADO Interdiction and Strike and Electronic Combat and Reconnaissance aircraft. The activities included design, development, test, and evaluation activities, including night vision goggle (NVG) integration, cockpit instruments, and external lighting modifications, as well as various ground test sessions and a total of 18 flight test sorties. RSV and Litton Precision Products were responsible for coordinating and conducting the installation of the internal and external lights. Particularly, an iterative process was established allowing in-site rapid correction of the major deficiencies encountered during the ground and flight test sessions. Both single-ship (day/night) and formation (night) flights were performed, with testing activities shared among the test crews involved, allowing for a redundant examination of the various test items by all participants. An innovative test matrix was developed and implemented by RSV for assessing the operational suitability and effectiveness of the various modifications implemented. Also important was the definition of test criteria for Pilot and Weapon Systems Officer workload assessment during the accomplishment of various operational tasks during NVG missions. Furthermore, the specific technical and operational elements required for evaluating the modified helmets were identified, allowing an exhaustive comparative evaluation of the two proposed solutions (i.e., HGU-55P and HGU-55G modified helmets). The initial compatibility problems encountered were progressively mitigated by incorporating modifications in both front and rear cockpits at various stages of the test campaign. This process allowed considerable enhancement of the TORNADO NVIS configuration, giving good medium- to high-level NVG operational capability to the aircraft. Further developments also include the internal/external lighting for the Italian TORNADO “Mid-Life Update” and other programs such as AMX aircraft internal/external light modification/testing and the activities addressing low-altitude NVG operations with fast jets (e.g., TORNADO, AMX, MB-339CD), with a major issue being the safe ejection of aircrew with NVG and NVG modified helmets. Two options have been identified for solving this problem, namely, the modification of the current Gentex HGU-55 helmets and the design of a new helmet incorporating a reliable NVG connection/disconnection device (i.e., a mechanical system fully integrated in the helmet frame) with embedded automatic disconnection capability in case of ejection. Other relevant issues to be accounted for in these new developments are the helmet dimensions and weight, the NVG usable field of view as a function of eye-relief distance, and the helmet's center of gravity (moment arms) with and without NVG (effect on aircrew fatigue during training and real operational missions).

Low cost smart security camera with night vision capability using Raspberry Pi and OpenCV

Abstract: In order to further maintain peace and provide security to people now a day, Closed-circuit television (CCTV) surveillance system is being utilized This study focused on the design and implementation of a low cost smart security camera with night vision capability using Raspberry Pi (RPI) and OpenCV The system was designed to be used inside a warehouse facility It has human detection and smoke detection capability that can provide precaution to potential crimes and potential fire The credit card size Raspberry Pi (RPI) with Open Source Computer Vision (OpenCV) software handles the image processing, control algorithms for the alarms and sends captured pictures to user's email via Wi-Fi As part of its alarm system, it will play the recorded sounds: “intruder” or “smoke detected” when there is a detection The system uses ordinary webcam but its IR filter was removed in order to have night vision capability

Infrared devices and techniques (revision)

Abstract: In 2002 was published our review paper “Infrared devices and techniques” ( Opto-Electronics Review , 10 (2), pp. 111-136). The present paper up-date previous edition – it content has been revised and much of materials have been reorganized. The main objective of this paper is to produce an applications-oriented review covering infrared techniques and devices. At the beginning infrared systems fundamentals are presented with emphasis on thermal emission, scene radiation and contrast, cooling techniques, and optics. Special attention is focused on night vision and thermal imag ing concepts. Next section concentrates shortly on selected infrared systems and is arranged in order to increase complexity; from image intensifier systems, thermal imaging systems, to space-based systems. In this section are also described active and passive smart weapon seekers. Finally, other important infrared techniques and devices are shortly described, among them being: non-contact thermometers, radiometers, LIDAR, and infrared gas sensors.

Improving the Safety of Aging Road Users – A Mini-Review

Abstract: Older drivers are at greatest risk for injury or death as a result of a car crash. In this mini-review, we outline the normative age-related changes to perceptual, cognitive, and motor abilities that contribute to increased crash risk and decreased comfort with driving, and highlight specific driving scenarios and conditions that are particularly challenging for aging road users. Adopting a person-environment fit framework, we discuss how the roadway environment can be modified to better match the abilities of the aging driver. We also review evidence for the efficacy of training interventions that aim to change the abilities and strategies of the aging driver to better match the demands of the driving environment. Evidence suggests that specific changes to the roadway and driver training strategies can bring the abilities of the older driver back into alignment with the demands of the driving task. A focus on both approaches will help ensure the safety of all road users as the number of aging drivers greatly increases over the next few decades.

Evaluation of Navigation Sensors in Fire Smoke Environments

Abstract: An experimental study was performed to quantify the performance of eleven common robotic navigation rangefinding technologies and camera systems in fire smoke environments. Instruments evaluated included two IR cameras, two visible cameras, two sonar systems, radar, a single-echo LIDAR, a multi-echo LIDAR, a Kinect™ depth sensor, and night vision. Small-scale smoke layer experiments were performed to isolate the effect of smoke visibility and gas temperature on instrument performance. Dense, low temperature smoke tests were used to evaluate instrument performance as the smoke visibility dropped below 1 m while the smoke temperature remained below 100°C. Light, high temperature smoke tests were used to evaluate instrument performance as the smoke reached a temperature above 250°C with the visibility above 5 m. Results from the tests show that radar systems and infrared cameras outperform the other rangefinders and cameras tested for these scenarios. A series of large-scale experiments were then performed to locate objects in a smoke filled room and hallway. Distances from the LIDAR were subject to error when the visibility reduced below 4 m. Infrared stereo vision and radar could locate the distance to target objects immersed in the smoke to within 10% and 1%, respectively, independent of smoke visibility level.

Simulating and compensating changes in appearance between day and night vision

Abstract: The same physical scene seen in bright sunlight and in dusky conditions does not appear identical to the human eye Similarly, images shown on an 8000 cd/m2 high-dynamic-range (HDR) display and in a 50 cd/m2 peak luminance cinema screen also differ significantly in their appearance We propose a luminance retargeting method that alters the perceived contrast and colors of an image to match the appearance under different luminance levels The method relies on psychophysical models of matching contrast, models of rod-contribution to vision, and our own measurements The retargeting involves finding an optimal tone-curve, spatial contrast processing, and modeling of hue and saturation shifts This lets us reliably simulate night vision in bright conditions, or compensate for a bright image shown on a darker display so that it reveals details and colors that would otherwise be invisible

Initial experience with a new refractive rotationally asymmetric multifocal intraocular lens.

Abstract: Purpose To assess efficacy, safety, predictability, and patient satisfaction after refractive lens exchange with a new refractive rotational asymmetric multifocal intraocular lens. Methods One hundred six eyes of 53 patients after bilateral refractive lens exchange with the SBL-3 lens (Lenstec, Inc., Christ Church, Barbados) implantation were evaluated. The mean preoperative refractive sphere was +1.06 ± 2.63 diopters (D) (range: -8.25 to +5.00 D) and the mean refractive cylinder was -0.51 ± 0.46 D (range: -2.00 to 0.00 D). Monocular and binocular uncorrected and corrected distance visual acuity, uncorrected and distance-corrected intermediate visual acuity, uncorrected and distance-corrected near visual acuity, defocus curve, and patient satisfaction were evaluated 3 months postoperatively. Results At 3 months, 84.9% (90 eyes) were within ±0.50 D of emmetropia. The mean postoperative uncorrected distance visual acuity was -0.03 ± 0.09 logMAR (6/6 Snellen) monocularly and -0.08 ± 0.08 logMAR (6/4.8 Snellen) binocularly. The mean monocular and binocular uncorrected near visual acuity were 0.12 ± 0.12 and 0.08 ± 0.10 logMAR (6/7.5 Snellen), respectively. Defocus curve showed a slight drop off for vergences equivalent to intermediate vision. Although some night vision phenomena were reported, overall satisfaction was high. No intraoperative or postoperative complications occurred in this study. Conclusions The new refractive rotationally asymmetric intraocular lens provided good range of vision for near, intermediate, and distance. Long-term follow-ups are necessary to evaluate the performance of this intraocular lens.

Scotopic microperimetry in the early diagnosis of age-related macular degeneration: preliminary study.

Abstract: Background. Recent clinical studies have shown that, in some degenerative retinal diseases, like age-related macular degeneration (AMD), the sensitivity of the rods decreases more rapidly than the sensitivity of the cones. The aim of this study was to evaluate if there is a correlation between the presence of hard drusen at the macular level and the rod damage responsible for the reduction in scotopic retinal sensitivity in subjects at risk for AMD. Methods. The authors selected 24 subjects (14 men and 10 women) with an average age of 67.25 ± 5.7 years. Macular hard drusen were present in 50% of the subjects at the fundus oculi exam. The researchers evaluated the retinal sensitivity to light in mesopic and scotopic conditions of each subject with an MP-1 scotopic microperimeter (MP-1S). Results. In subjects with hard drusen in the fundus oculi examination, there was a statistically significant reduction in scotopic retinal sensitivity, while the mesopic retinal sensitivity was not compromised. Conclusion. This study revealed how the presence of hard drusen at the macular level is associated with a reduction in scotopic retinal sensitivity compared to a control group of healthy subjects. Retinal functionality in a scotopic setting examined with MP-1S could be useful in early diagnosis of AMD.

Night vision animal detection

Abstract: In order to reduce traffic accidents involving animals, which is a major concern in worldwide traffic, Autoliv has developed a state-of-the-art vehicle mounted night vision animal detection system. The system is currently used by Audi, BMW and Daimler. The main contributions of this paper include: world's first vehicular animal detection system to reach the customer market, an efficient classification approach based on a cascade boosting concept which is robust to occlusion, pose and scale variations, a large database of thousands of hours of far infrared (FIR) video data recorded worldwide including several hundred thousand example images of animals in traffic situations, a tracking approach to handle animal movement and estimate animal states, a validation approach to efficiently reduce the number of false detections and human-machine-interface (HMI) and warning concepts to highlight animals at risk of collision. The presented system detects animals up to 200 meters away from the car while generating very few false warnings. For animals that are considered a potential danger, advanced HMIs such as marking lights which actively illuminates the animals are applied, giving the driver the quick and accurate information he or she requires. The Autoliv night vision animal detection system is complementary to currently used methods for preventing accidents with animals. By using it, the driver is given all opportunities to react to dangerous situations and to avoid potential accidents.

SWIR detectors for night vision at AIM

Abstract: Detectors for the short-wave infrared (SWIR) spectral range are particularly suitable for observation under hazy weather conditions as well as under twilight or moon light conditions. In addition, SWIR detectors allow using the airglow for observation under moonless sky. SWIR detectors are commonly based on InGaAs or HgCdTe (MCT) and demand extremely low dark currents to ensure a high signal-to-noise ratio under low background light conditions. AIM has developed a read-out integrated circuit (ROIC) with 640×512 pixels and a 15 μm pixel pitch for low light level applications. The ROIC supports analog or digital correlated double sampling (CDS) for the reduction of reset-noise (also known as kTC-noise). Along with CDS, a rolling shutter (RS) mode has been implemented. The input stage of the ROIC is based on a capacitive transimpedance amplifier (CTIA) with two selectable gain settings. The dark current of our SWIR MCT detectors has recently been significantly reduced to allow for high operating temperatures. In contrast to InGaAs, the MCT material offers the unique possibility to adjust the cut-off wavelength according to the application while maintaining the matching of the lattice constant to the one of the CdZnTe substrate. The key electro-optical performance parameters of lately developed MCT based SWIR Focal Plane Arrays (FPA) with a 1.75 μm cut-off wavelength will be presented. In addition, AIMs SWIR detectors covering the spectral range from 0.9 μm to 2.5 μm and available in formats of 384×288 pixels - 24 μm pitch and 1024×256 pixels - 24×32 μm2, will be introduced.

Near infrared bioluminescence resonance energy transfer from firefly luciferase--quantum dot bionanoconjugates.

Abstract: The bioluminescence resonance energy transfer (BRET) between firefly luciferase enzymes and semiconductive quantum dots (QDs) with near infrared emission is described. The QD were phase transferred to aqueous buffers using a histidine mediated phase transfer route, and incubated with a hexahistidine tagged, green emitting variant of firefly luciferase from Photinus pyralis (PPyGRTS). The PPyGRTS were bound to the QD interface via the hexahistidine tag, which effectively displaces the histidine layer and binds directly to the QD interfaces, allowing for short donor-acceptor distances (∼5.5 nm). Due to this, high BRET efficiency ratios of ∼5 were obtained. These PPyGRTS-QD bio-nano conjugates were characterized by transmission electron microscopy, thermal gravimetric analysis, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy and BRET emission studies. The final optimized conjugate was easily observable by night vision imaging, demonstrating the potential of these materials in imaging and signaling/sensing applications.

Chemically deposited PbS thin film photo-conducting layers for optically addressed spatial light modulators

Abstract: Lead sulfide semiconducting thin films were chemically deposited on indium tin oxide coated glass plates for use as photoreceptor layers in conjugation with optically addressed spatial light modulators (OASLMs). Deposition conditions such as temperature, reagent concentration, pH and deposition time were optimized in order to achieve homogeneous, continuous and adherent films. Mirror-like films with tunable particle size and film thickness were obtained. The microstructure and morphology evolution of the films were investigated using X-ray diffraction, scanning electron microscopy and atomic force microscopy. Electrical and optical properties were studied using four-point probe measurements, FTIR spectroscopy, photoluminescence spectroscopy, photo-current and photo-voltage measurements. Blue shift of the band gap to the short wavelength infra-red (SWIR) range was obtained as a function of particle size, and significant photovoltaic effect was measured. The resistivity of the films, as well as their photo-voltage response, were enhanced after thermal annealing. These results indicate that PbS films can serve as effective photoreceptors in OASLMs for applications including SWIR detection for night vision purposes.

A visual test based on a freeware software for quantifying and displaying night-vision disturbances: study in subjects after alcohol consumption

Abstract: Background In this work, we propose the Halo test, a simple visual test based on a freeware software for quantifying and displaying night-vision disturbances perceived by subjects under different experimental conditions, more precisely studying the influence of the alcohol consumption on visual function.

The Remarkable Visual Abilities of Nocturnal Insects: Neural Principles and Bioinspired Night-Vision Algorithms

Abstract: Despite their tiny eyes and brains, nocturnal insects have remarkable visual abilities Recent work-particularly on fast-flying moths and bees and on ball-rolling dung beetles-has shown that nocturnal insects are able to distinguish colors, to detect faint movements, to learn visual landmarks, to orient to the faint pattern of polarized light produced by the moon, and to navigate using the stars These impressive visual abilities are the result of exquisitely adapted eyes and visual systems, the product of millions of years of evolution Even though we are only at the threshold of understanding the neural mechanisms responsible for reliable nocturnal vision, growing evidence suggests that the neural summation of photons in space and time is critically important: even though vision in dim light becomes necessarily coarser and slower, those details that are preserved are seen clearly These benefits of spatio-temporal summation have obvious implications for dim-light video technologies In addition to reviewing the visual adaptations of nocturnal insects, we here describe an algorithm inspired by nocturnal visual processing strategies-from amplification of primary image signals to optimized spatio-temporal summation to reduce noise-that dramatically increases the reliability of video collected in dim light, including the preservation of color (Less)

Smart phone based robotic control for surveillance applications

Abstract: The robotics and automation industry which is ruled the sectors from manufacturing to household entertainments. It is widely used because of its simplicity and ability to modify to meet changes of needs. The project is designed to develop a robotic vehicle using android application for remote operation attached with wireless camera for monitoring purpose. The robot along with camera can wirelessly transmit real time video with night vision capabilities. This is kind of robot can be helpful for spying purpose in war fields.

Metric for the Fusion of Synthetic and Real Imagery from Multimodal Sensors

Abstract: We described a method to improve night vision for vehicle navigation that combined images from a thermal infrared camera and from a public database of stored images. Such an approach allows a night scene to appear as if it were daytime for automotive applications thereby increasing safety. We described a new metric to evaluate the fusion of such an augmented reality system and compared leading fusion algorithms to determine the efficacy of our approach.

NIR image based pedestrian detection in night vision with cascade classification and validation

Abstract: Pedestrian detection is one of the vital issues in advanced driving assistance applications. It is even more important in nighttime. This paper presents a robust algorithm for a nighttime pedestrian detection system. A NIR (Near Infrared) camera is used in this system to take images of a night scene. As there are large intra class variations in the pedestrian poses, a tree structured classifier is proposed here to handle the problem by training it with different subset of images and different sizes. This paper discusses about combination of Haar-Cascade and HOG-SVM (Histogram of Oriented Gradients-Support Vector Machine) for classification and validation. Haar-Cascade is trained such that to classify the full body of humans which eliminates most of the non-pedestrian regions. For refining the pedestrians after detection, a part based SVM classifier with HOG features is used. Upper and lower body part HOG features of the pedestrians are used for part based validation of detected bounding boxes. A full body validation scheme is also implemented using HOG-SVM when any one of the part based validation does not validate that particular part. Combination of the different types of complementary features yields better results. Experiments on test images determines that the proposed pedestrian detection system has a high detection rate and low false alarm rate since it works on part based validation process.

Retinal-Image Quality and Night-Vision Performance after Alcohol Consumption

Abstract: Purpose. To evaluate the influence of alcohol consumption on the retinal-image quality and visual performance under surrounding low-illumination conditions. Methods. A volunteer sample of 67 subjects was analyzed. Optical quality of the eye was evaluated by means of the Strehl ratio, the Objective Scattering Index (OSI), and the tear-film quality. We used the visual disturbance index (VDI) to evaluate visual performance under low-illumination conditions and we measured the pupil size under these conditions. The tear-film volume was also measured. All measurements were made before and after alcohol consumption and patients were classified into two groups depending on their breath alcohol content (BrAC): low-alcohol (BrAC < 0.25 mg/L) and high-alcohol content (BrAC ≥ 0.25 mg/L). Results. The VDI was significantly higher after alcohol consumption: the higher the BrAC, the higher the deterioration of the visual discrimination capacity. The pupil size increased significantly for the high-BrAC group. Parameters evaluating optical quality deteriorated after alcohol consumption. Conclusion. The visual performance under low-illumination conditions and the retinal-image quality were deteriorated after alcohol consumption, especially for the high-alcohol group. Furthermore, some physiological changes were observed under effects for high-alcohol contents, such as an increase in the pupil size and disturbances in the tear film, which deteriorated optical quality.

Blueberry effects on dark vision and recovery after photobleaching: placebo-controlled crossover studies

Abstract: Clinical evidence for anthocyanin benefits in night vision is controversial. This paper presents two human trials investigating blueberry anthocyanin effects on dark adaptation, functional night vision, and vision recovery after retinal photobleaching. One trial, S2 (n = 72), employed a 3 week intervention and a 3 week washout, two anthocyanin doses (271 and 7.11 mg cyanidin 3-glucoside equivalents (C3g eq)), and placebo. The other trial, L1 (n = 59), employed a 12 week intervention and an 8 week washout and tested one dose (346 mg C3g eq) and placebo. In both S2 and L1 neither dark adaptation nor night vision was improved by anthocyanin intake. However, in both trials anthocyanin consumption hastened the recovery of visual acuity after photobleaching. In S2 both anthocyanin doses were effective (P = 0.014), and in L1 recovery was improved at 8 weeks (P = 0.027) and 12 weeks (P = 0.030). Although photobleaching recovery was hastened by anthocyanins, it is not known whether this improvement would have an i...