Showing papers on "Organizational culture published in 2002"
TL;DR: The authors reviewed more than 70 studies concerning employees' general belief that their work organization values their contribution and cares about their well-being (perceived organizational support; POS) and indicated that 3 major categories of beneficial treatment received by employees were associated with POS.
Abstract: The authors reviewed more than 70 studies concerning employees' general belief that their work organization values their contribution and cares about their well-being (perceived organizational support; POS). A meta-analysis indicated that 3 major categories of beneficial treatment received by employees (i.e., fairness, supervisor support, and organizational rewards and favorable job conditions) were associated with POS. POS, in turn, was related to outcomes favorable to employees (e.g., job satisfaction, positive mood) and the organization (e.g., affective commitment, performance, and lessened withdrawal behavior). These relationships depended on processes assumed by organizational support theory: employees' belief that the organization's actions were discretionary, feeling of obligation to aid the organization, fulfillment of socioemotional needs, and performance-reward expectancies.
5,828 citations
TL;DR: In this article, the adoption of an organizational practice by subsidiaries of a multinational corporation under conditions of "institutional duality" is examined, drawing on institutional theory, and they identify...
Abstract: We examine the adoption of an organizational practice by subsidiaries of a multinational corporation (MNC) under conditions of “institutional duality.” Drawing on institutional theory, we identify ...
2,399 citations
01 Jan 2002
TL;DR: The Concept of Organizational Culture Organizational culture as Metaphor and Metaphors for CultureOrganizational Culture and Identity Organizational cultures and identity Organizational cultural and identity, Strategy and Marketing Organizationalculture and leadership Work and Multiple Levels of Culture Ambiguity of Culture Culture as Constraint: An Emancipatory Approach Cultural Change as mentioned in this paper.
Abstract: The Concept of Organizational Culture Organizational Culture as Metaphor and Metaphors for Culture Organizational Culture and Identity Organizational Culture and Performance Organizational Culture, Strategy and Marketing Organizational Culture and Leadership Work and Multiple Levels of Culture Ambiguity of Culture Culture as Constraint: An Emancipatory Approach Cultural Change Conclusions
1,462 citations
TL;DR: In this article, a model of the antecedents and consequences of perceived organizational support (POS) and leader-member exchange (LMX) was examined, and it was predicted that organizational justice (procedural and distributive justice) and organizational practices that provide recognition to the employee (feelings of inclusion and recognition from upper management) would influence POS.
Abstract: This study examined a model of the antecedents and consequences of perceived organizational support (POS) and leader-member exchange (LMX). It was predicted that organizational justice (procedural and distributive justice) and organizational practices that provide recognition to the employee (feelings of inclusion and recognition from upper management) would influence POS. For LMX, it was predicted that leader reward (distributive justice and contingent rewards) and punishment behavior would be important antecedents. Results based on a sample of 211 employee-supervisor dyads indicated that organizational justice, inclusion, and recognition were related to POS and contingent rewards were related to LMX. In terms of consequences, POS was related to employee commitment and organizational citizenship behavior, whereas LMX predicted performance ratings.
850 citations
TL;DR: Characteristics of the concept of context in terms of organizational culture, leadership and measurement are outlined and it is found that context specifically means 'the setting in which practice takes place', but that the term itself does little to reflect the complexity of the idea.
Abstract: Getting evidence into practice: the meaning of `context'
Aim of paper. This paper presents the findings of a concept analysis of `context' in relation to the successful implementation of evidence into practice.
Background. In 1998, a conceptual framework was developed that represented the interplay and interdependence of the many factors influencing the uptake of evidence into practice [Kitson A., Harvey G. & McCormack B. (1998) Quality in Health Care7, 149]. One of the key elements of the framework was `context', that is, the setting in which evidence is implemented. It was proposed that key factors in the context of health care practice had a significant impact on the implementation and uptake of evidence. As part of the on-going development and refinement of the framework, the elements within it have undergone a concept analysis in order to provide some theoretical and conceptual rigour to its content.
Methods. Morse's [Morse J.M. (1995) Advances in Nursing Science17, 31; Morse J.M., Hupcey J.E. & Mitcham C. (1996) Scholarly Inquiry for Nursing Practice. An International Journal10, 253] approach to concept analysis was used as a framework to review semi-nal texts critically and the supporting research literature in order to establish the conceptual clarity and maturity of `context' in relation to its importance in the implementation of evidence-based practice.
Findings: Characteristics of the concept of context in terms of organizational culture, leadership and measurement are outlined. A main finding is that context specifically means `the setting in which practice takes place', but that the term itself does little to reflect the complexity of the concept. Whilst the themes of culture and leadership are central characteristics of the concept, the theme of `measurement' is better articulated through the broader term of `evaluation'.
Conclusions. There is inconsistency in the use of the term and this has an impact on claims of its importance. The concept of context lacks clarity because of the many issues that impact on the way it is characterized. Additionally, there is limited understanding of the consequences of working with different contexts. Thus, the implications of using context as a variable in research studies exploring research implementation are as yet largely unknown. The concept of context is partially developed but in need of further delineation and comparison.
773 citations
TL;DR: A two-level study of child welfare and juvenile justice case management teams addresses construct, measurement, and composition issues that plague multilevel research on organizational culture and climate.
Abstract: This two-level study of child welfare and juvenile justice case management teams addresses construct, measurement, and composition issues that plague multilevel research on organizational culture and climate. Very few empirical studies have examined both culture and climate simultaneously, and none have provided evidence that culture and climate are distinct or similar constructs. Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA), within-group consistency analysis (rwg), between-group differences (ICC and eta-squared), and hierarchical linear models (HLM) analysis provide evidence that climate and culture are separate constructs that vary by organizational unit, and are related to work attitudes, perceptions, and behavior. Findings link team-level culture and climate to individual-level job satisfaction and commitment, perceptions of service quality, and turnover. Copyright © 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
758 citations
700 citations
TL;DR: The conceptual model described in this paper clarifies ways in which worker motivation is influenced and how health sector reform can positively affect worker motivation.
687 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors explored the relationship between participative management in the context of the strategic planning and job satisfaction in local government agencies and found that effective supervisory communications were positively associated with high levels of job satisfaction.
Abstract: Researchers and practitioners in both the public and private sectors agree that participative management improves employees' job satisfaction. Public agencies have also turned to strategic planning to enhance government performance and accountability. This study explores the relationship between participative management in the context of the strategic planning and job satisfaction in local government agencies. The results of multiple regression analysis show that managers' use of a participative management style and employees' perceptions of participative strategic planning processes are positively associated with high levels of job satisfaction. The study also finds that effective supervisory communications in the context of the strategic planning process are positively associated with high levels of job satisfaction. The study suggests that participative management that incorporates effective supervisory communications can enhance employees' job satisfaction. In this regard, organizational leaders in the public sector should emphasize changing organizational culture from the traditional pattern of hierarchical structure to participative management and empowerment.
662 citations
TL;DR: This publication contains reprint articles for which IEEE does not hold copyright and is not available on IEEE Xplore for these articles.
Abstract: More and more companies today are facing adaptive challenges: changes in societies, markets, and technology around the globe are forcing them to clarify their values, develop new strategies, and learn new ways of operating. And the most important task for leaders in the face of such challenges is mobilizing people throughout the organization to do adaptive work. Yet for many senior executives, providing such leadership is difficult. Why? One reason is that they are accustomed to solving problems themselves. Another is that adaptive change is distressing for the people going through it. They need to take on new roles, relationships, values, and approaches to work. Many employees are ambivalent about the sacrifices required of them and look to senior executives to take problems off their shoulders. But both sets of expectations have to be unlearned. Rather than providing answers, leaders have to ask tough questions. Rather than protecting people from outside threats, leaders should let the pinch of reality stimulate them to adapt. Instead of orienting people to their current roles, leaders must disorient them so that new relationships can develop. Instead of quelling conflict, leaders should draw the issues out. Instead of maintaining norms, leaders must challenge "the way we do business" and help others distinguish immutable values from the historical practices that have become obsolete. The authors offer six principles for leading adaptive work: "getting on the balcony," identifying the adaptive challenge, regulating distress, maintaining disciplined attention, giving the work back to people, and protecting voices of leadership from below.
660 citations
TL;DR: This paper drew from three theoretical perspectives to develop a new perspective that broadens the view of the creation of organizations from a masculine gender framework, which is often cast within a masculine perspective.
Abstract: Literature on the creation of organizations is often cast within a masculine gender framework. This paper draws from three theoretical perspectives to develop a new perspective that broadens the vi...
TL;DR: In this article, the authors report a survey of 1,306 senior HR managers that explores the management of the psychological contract and in particular the role of organisational communication, focusing on three distinct and relevant aspects of organizational communication, concerned with initial entry, day-to-day work and more future-oriented, top-down communication.
Abstract: The concept of the psychological contract, with its focus on the exchange of perceived promises and commitments, is increasingly used as a framework to study the employment relationship. Yet research has predominantly focused on employee views and has largely neglected the organisational perspective and the management of the psychological contract. This article begins to redress the balance by reporting a study, based on a survey of 1,306 senior HR managers, that explores the management of the psychological contract and in particular the role of organisational communication. Three distinct and relevant aspects of organisational communication are identified, concerned with initial entry, day-to-day work and more future-oriented, top-down communication. Effective use of these forms of communication is associated with what managers judge to be a clearer and less frequently breached set of organisational promises and commitments, as well as with a fairer exchange and a more positive impact of policies and practices on employee attitudes and behaviour. The findings are discussed within the context of the wider literature on psychological contracts, organisational culture and HRM. The study confirms that the psychological contract offers managers a useful framework within which to consider and manage the employment relationship.
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors examine the effect of institutional culture on change strategies across six institutions and identify findings informative at a level that can be used to guide change processes and strategies.
Abstract: The array of challenges that higher education faces today is virtually unparalleled when compared to any other point in U.S. history. The litany of changes is familiar to those in the field of higher education: financial pressure, growth in technology, changing faculty roles, public scrutiny, changing demographics, competing values, and the rapid rate of change in the world both within and beyond our national boarders. The changes many institutions face have accelerated beyond tinkering; more campuses each year attempt to create comprehensive (or transformational) change. Yet, change strategies have not been exceedingly helpful in their capacity to guide institutions, and we know even less about how to facilitate major, institutionwide change. The current change literature in higher education provides mostly generalized strategies about what is effective: a willing president or strong leadership, a collaborative process, or providing rewards (Roberts, Wren, & Adam, 1993; Taylor & Koch, 1996). This broad writing may mask information helpful to advance institutional change on a specific campus. "Achieving buy-in" or "communicating effectively" can seem very empty to institutional leaders and higher education scholars. Can this strategy be used at every institution and in the same way? The assumptions behind this approach are that each strategy is enacted similarly on each campus and that nuance and context do not much matter. Broad change strategies are presented as uniform, universal, and applicable. As an alternative, some scholars of organizations suggest that meaningful insight to understand the change process comes from context-based (micro-level) data (Bergquist, 1992). Context-based data help the change agent to understand why and under what circumstances strategies work at a particular institution at a particular time. The difficulty of working at the micro-level is becoming too specific and idiosyncratic to be of much help to others. As Hearn noted, the first and fundamental proposition we can stress about change is so simple as to seem banal or deflating, "it depends" (Hearn, 1996). Idiosyncratic observations are often of little use to practitioners. The challenge is to chart a middle ground and identify findings informative at a level that can be used to guide change processes. This task is challenging, because markers that one might use to determine the level of detail or the appropriate level of abstraction are not readily apparent. One solution to charting meaningful middle ground is through a cultural perspective. Organizational research in the 1980s illustrated the impact of culture on many aspects of organizational life (Peterson & Spencer, 1991). Yet, there have been few empirical studies examining how institutional culture affects change processes and strategies. The assumption from the organizational literature is that culture will be related to the change process; specifically, change processes can be thwarted by violating cultural norms or enhanced by culturally sensitive strategies (Bergquist, 1992). This study attempts to fill the gap in the literature, moving beyond generalized principles of change, by adopting a two-tiered cultural framework to examine the effect of institutional culture on change strategies across six institutions. The two research questions addressed are: (1) is the institutional culture related to the change process, and how is it related? and (2) are change processes thwarted by violating cultural norms or enhanced by culturally sensitive strategies? The two theories adopted for exploring the relationship of culture and change are Bergquist's (1992) four academic cultures and Tierney's (1991) individual institutional culture framework. The dual level of analysis offers a multiple-lens perspective that is better suited to understand complex organizational phenomena (Birnbaum, 1988; Bolman & Deal, 1991). …
01 Jan 2002
TL;DR: The authors examined the effect of dimensions of national and organizational culture differences on international joint venture (IJV) performance and found that the presumed negative effect from culture distance on IJV performance originates more from differences in organizational culture rather than differences in national culture.
Abstract: This study examines the effect of dimensions of national and organizational culture differences on international joint venture (IJV) performance. Based on data from a survey of executives from joint ventures between Indian partners and partners from other countries, we found that the presumed negative effect from culture distance on IJV performance originates more from differences in organizational culture than from differences in national culture.
TL;DR: The results suggest that employee perceptions of the safety system are related to management's commitment to safety, which, in turn, appear to be related to injury rates.
TL;DR: In this article, the authors integrated research in technology management, organizational ecology, and evolutionary economics to reconcile theoretical "blind spots" and reconcile theoretical 'blind spots' in the field of organizational ecology.
Abstract: In an effort to reconcile theoretical “blind spots,” we integrated research in technology management, organizational ecology, and evolutionary economics. The central premise underlying the resultan...
TL;DR: A review of the literature pertaining to organizational culture and greening can be found in this paper, where the authors provide contemporary evidence of managers' perceptions of the extent to which the green culture change is occurring and of factors acting as barriers or facilitators to such change.
Abstract: The green management literature repeatedly argues that in order to behave in a sustainable manner, organizational actions will need to go beyond technical fixes and embrace new environmentally responsible values, beliefs and behaviors. In this context, developing sustainability is frequently viewed as largely dependent on the extent of green culture change in organizations. However, empirical evidence for such a change in culture is not apparent, although much anecdotal support has been cited. Seeks to address some of the shortcomings in extant literature and supplies contemporary evidence of managers’ perceptions of the extent to which the green culture change is occurring and of factors acting as barriers or facilitators to such change. Begins with a review of the literature pertaining to organizational culture and greening. Following this, details the research design and methodology. Thereafter, lays out the findings of the interviews in detail. Finally, discusses these findings and suggests a number of implications, conclusions and directions for further research.
TL;DR: Investigation of the role of attributions in shaping employees' trust in their managers in the context of negative events found trustworthy behavior was negatively related to attributions of personal responsibility for negative encounters, and this relationship was stronger when human resource policies were perceived as unfair.
Abstract: The authors explored the role of attributions in shaping employees' trust in their managers in the context of negative events. The authors examined how 2 forms of managerial trustworthy behavior (open communication and demonstrating concern for employees) and organizational policies relate to attributions, trust in the manager, and organizational citizenship behavior. Participants were 115 credit union employees who responded to a critical incident regarding a disagreement with their managers. As hypothesized, trustworthy behavior was negatively related to attributions of personal responsibility for negative encounters, and this relationship was stronger when human resource policies were perceived as unfair. Managerial trustworthy behavior was also positively related to trust in the manager and organizational citizenship behavior. Personal attributions partially mediated the relationship between trustworthy behavior and trust.
TL;DR: In this paper, a model of antecedents and consequences of justice perceptions in the appraisal context is proposed to link justice perceptions to organizational, leader-related, and performance-related outcomes.
TL;DR: It is suggested that although increasing recruitment of nurses and improved compensation and benefits strategies may offset hospital nurse shortages in the short term, improving quality of work life may be a more practical and long‐term approach to improving hospital nurse retention.
Abstract: Investigates the relationship between hospital unit culture and the quality of work life of nurses. Impact of unit organizational culture on the quality of work life factors of nurses; Correlation between human relations cultural values and organizational commitment; Importance of quality of work life improvement to improving hospital nurse retention.
TL;DR: It is argued that organizational responses to reports (i.e., organizational remedies, organizational minimization, and retaliation) as well as procedural satisfaction can account for these negative effects of reporting.
Abstract: This study places the reporting of sexual harassment within an integrated model of the sexual harassment process. Two structural models were developed and tested in a sample (N = 6,417) of male and female military personnel. The 1st model identifies determinants and effects of reporting; reporting did not improve--and at times worsened--job, psychological, and health outcomes. The authors argue that organizational responses to reports (i.e., organizational remedies, organizational minimization, and retaliation) as well as procedural satisfaction can account for these negative effects. The 2nd model examines these mediating mechanisms; results suggest that these mediators, and not reporting itself, are the source of the negative effects of reporting. Organizational and legal implications of these findings are discussed.
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors report what they have learned about the distinctive features of highly innovation-supportive cultures in product-innovation settings and propose how organizations might develop such cultures.
Abstract: Executive SummaryMost managers know that organizational culture influences the firm's economic consequences and recognize its important role in shaping product-innovation processes. Highly innovation-supportive cultures are credited with fostering teamwork and promoting risk-taking and creative actions that seem directly linked to effective new-product development. Fostering highly innovation-supportive cultures in practice, however, is easier said than done. From the voices of participants in new-product development processes in high-technology organizations, we report what we have learned about the distinctive features of highly innovation-supportive cultures in product-innovation settings and propose how organizations might develop such cultures.
TL;DR: The authors identify larger patterns by examining national data that represent criteria often used in local promotion and tenure decisions or in annual faculty reviews, and identify patterns across types of institutions and disciplines, including teaching, research, and service.
Abstract: Research accomplishment, the most "cosmopolitan" academic function, has social and economic value. Research visibility certainly enhances institutional stature among peers (Alpert, 1985). Political and public support for academic institutions, however, rests on the perceived institutional commitment to "local functions," especially teaching and learning (Ewell, 1994; Hearn, 1992). Legislative calls for accountability and effectiveness, and public concern about increasing costs and the potential adverse consequences for access clearly focus on the teaching mission. Many state legislatures have focused on faculty commitment to teaching often in terms of instructional productivity. Efforts to eliminate tenure by the governing boards in Arizona and Florida, legislation in Ohio to mandate an increase in the time faculty spend on teaching, and growing legislative interest in post-tenure review are specific expressions of this concern. The focus of this reform movement is not limited to public institutions. The Nati onal Science Foundation, which supports and influences both public and private institutions, recently required grant applicants to state how their research work will affect their teaching effort. Much of the policy debate about the nature of faculty work is shrouded in myth, opinion, and conjecture. Critics of the perceived lack of emphasis on teaching in research universities may assume that this criticism applies equally well to teaching-oriented colleges, a questionable assumption at best. Parents, potential students, and even state legislators often overestimate the actual cost of attending college (National Commission on the Cost of Higher Education, 1998). Yet the perceived inattention to teaching and learning, particularly at the undergraduate level, is not off base (B ok, 1992; Fairweather, 1996). Boyer (1990) acknowledged the legitimacy of this claim when he attempted to encourage institutional responsiveness to public concerns about teaching and learning. He advocated considering teaching as a form of scholarship to increase its status on college campuses. The American Association of Higher Education Forum on Faculty Roles and Rewards took Boyer's concepts a step further, encouraging institutional teams to foster changes in local faculty rewards. The willingness and ability of academic institutions to respond effectively to these challenges is influenced by what Clark (1972) calls institutional sagas. These sagas contain a variety of beliefs or myths that help perpetuate organizational culture by socializing new participants (students, administrators, and especially the faculty) by establishing norms for their behavior. Among the set of beliefs held by many academic administrators and faculty members about the nature of faculty work and productivity are that (a) teaching, research, and service are activities imbedded in some form within each faculty member's work effort, (b) teaching and research are mutually reinforcing, and as a consequence (c) faculty can simultaneously be productive in teaching and research. Other than hiring new faculty members, the principal expression of academic values about faculty work lies in the promotion and tenure decision. It is here rather than in institutional rhetoric that the faculty seek clues about the value of different aspects of their work. It is here that productivity is most meaningfully defined and evaluated. Yet promotion and tenure decisions are both individual and private in nature. These characteristics make it difficult to identify the cumulative effects of individual decisions within an institution, much less identify patterns across types of institutions and disciplines. The purpose of this article is to identify these larger patterns by examining national data that represent criteria often used in local promotion and tenure decisions or in annual faculty reviews. I am particularly interested in the belief that all aspects of faculty work--particularly teaching and research--can be equally (or somewhat equally) addressed by the work of each faculty member. …
TL;DR: McSweeney's critique of Hofstede's model is examined in this paper, for its useful warnings to those who follow Hofstadede's research and for its logical consistency, which indicates that both functionalist and other paradigms are needed for future research into national culture and for understanding social behaviour in different national cultures.
Abstract: McSweeney’s critique (2002) rejects Hofstede’s model and finds national culture implausible as a systematically causal factor of behaviour. His critique is examined for its useful warnings to those who follow Hofstede’s research and for its logical consistency. A paradigmatic perspective identifies where McSweeney argues against Hofstede’s logic and where he rejects Hofstede’s paradigm and premises. This indicates that both the functionalist and other paradigms are needed for future research into national culture and for understanding social behaviour in different national cultures.
TL;DR: This paper found that women were less ambitious than men, and even ambitious women perceived work-home conflict as an important barrier to career advancement, while men did not perceive conflict as a barrier to advancement.
Abstract: We present two studies that investigated women's motives to pursue a career in top management. The central hypothesis was that masculine culture preferences are important predictors for career motives. Women were expected to have less masculine preferences than men do, which is assumed to be a determinant of their relative absence in management positions. In Study 1 (N =327), we investigated gender differences in organizational culture preferences, both in a managerial sample and a sample of non-managerial professionals in private sector organizations. It was shown that gender differences only existed in the non-managerial groups, with women showing less masculine culture preferences than men did. In Study 2 (N =350), we examined the effects of organizational culture preferences on the ambitions of staff employees and middle-level managers to pursue a career at a top management level in one governmental organization. The results showed that organizational culture preferences were predictive for ambition of non-managerial employees, but not for that of middle management employees. Overall, women were less ambitious than men, and even ambitious women perceived work-home conflict as an important barrier to career advancement.
TL;DR: In this article, the authors present and analyze the well-known bond trading scandal at Salomon Brother to demonstrate the development of an unethical organizational culture under the leadership of John Gutfreund.
Abstract: The paper describes and discusses unethical behavior in organizations, as a result of (interacting) disputable leadership and ethical climate. This paper presents and analyzes the well-known bond trading scandal at Salomon Brother to demonstrate the development of an unethical organizational culture under the leadership of John Gutfreund. The paper argues that leaders shape and reinforce an ethical or unethical organizational climate by what they pay attention to, how they react to crises, how they behave, how they allocate rewards, and how they hire and fire individuals.
TL;DR: In this article, a comparative structural equation modelling was used to test the relationship between manifestations of leadership, culture type and effectiveness in the public sector. But the authors did not consider the effect of individual transformational leadership on outcomes.
Abstract: Using comparative structural equation modelling, the present study attempts to test hypothesised relationships between manifestations of leadership, culture type and effectiveness in the public sector. Two consecutive national leadership surveys were conducted to investigate organisational factors that are relevant to the pressing management issues present in the uncertain and turbulent environment of today's public sector. Measured constructs include transformational/transactional organisational culture, climate for innovation, individual transformational leadership, team transformational leadership, and team and organisational outcomes. Support was found for the indirect and direct effects of transformational leadership on outcomes through its influence on transformational/ transactional culture and climate for innovation. Implications for leader development and for the development of productive cultures are considered.
TL;DR: In this article, a Holistic Model for Quality in Higher Education (TQM) is proposed to address the service, education, and implementation aspects synergistically in higher education.
Abstract: Attempts to apply the Quality Management models from industry into higher education have not been successful. There is a rationale for separately addressing the service and education functions with appropriate sets of criteria. TQM is an appropriate model for the former-service. For the latter, a number of models of excellence centered on learning are reviewed. The effectiveness of any composite model in addressing the multifarious elements of higher education is dependent on the organisational culture. The typical current culture is one of bureaucratic nature, prone to conflict. It is argued that in the current literature an ideal organisation behaviour which addresses the core values of higher education are the Learning Communities concepts. Such a Holistic Model for Quality in Higher Education can serve as the ideal to address the service, education and implementation aspects synergistically.
01 Jan 2002
TL;DR: In this article, the authors present and analyze the well-known bond trading scandal at Salomon Brother to demon-strate the development of an unethical organizational culture under the leadership of John Gutfreund.
Abstract: The paper describes and discusses unethical behavior in organizations, as a result of (interacting) disputable leadership and ethical climate. This paper presents and analyzes the well-known bond trading scandal at Salomon Brother to demon- strate the development of an unethical organizational culture under the leadership of John Gutfreund. The paper argues that leaders shape and reinforce an ethical or unethical organizational climate by what they pay attention to, how they react to crises, how they behave, how they allocate rewards, and how they hire and fire individuals.