Showing papers on "Perspective (graphical) published in 1976"

Social Change and Transitions to Adulthood in Historical Perspective

Abstract: *John Modell is Associate Professor of History, University of Minnesota, and Research Associate, Philadelphia Social History Project. Frank F. Furstenberg, Jr. is Associate Professor of Sociology, University of Pennsylvania. Theodore Hershberg is Associate Professor of History, University of Pennsylvania, and Director, Philadelphia Social History Project. An earlier version of this paper was presented at the annual meetings of the American Sociological Association in San Francisco, August, 1975. Rules can be found in every society governing the passage to adulthood. In some

Preinstructional Strategies: The Role of Pretests, Behavioral Objectives, Overviews and Advance Organizers

Abstract: Organization, it has been argued, is the hallmark of good teaching. The sequencing and arrangement of subject material appears to influence not only what students learn, but also their attitudes towards the usefulness and importance of what has to be achieved. For this reason, any procedure which makes this arrangement or organization more obvious and striking is likely to facilitate the learning of meaningful material. Nowhere is this more important than in the preliminary phases of teaching and instruction. A well-organized "bird's-eye-view" of the task supplies the student with a useful perspective of what lies ahead. It also serves as a framework on which subsequent learning can be

A historical perspective on the development of MOS transistors and related devices

Abstract: T HAS been less than seventeen years since D. Kahng and M. M. Atalla [l] of Bell Telephone Laboratories reported the first demonstration of an Si-Si02 MOS transistor. Even so, the annual sales of MOS based semiconductor components are expected to surpass one billion dollars in the U.S. alone. The impact on our daily lives imparted by these MOS based IC’s is just beginning to be felt. This tremendous explosion has been caused by many innovations and countless numbers of perhaps small but indispensable contributions by many unsung heroes. It is clear then that to list every single landmark, every twist and turn on the road would be just about impossible, even if one had unlimited time to dig into the history and unlimited space in this issue to describe them. It is hoped then that readers will understand that the few milestones related in this article are only those that at the present time the writer feels are more important, without implying completeness or even absolute soundness in his judgment in selecting them. It should also be remarked that what can now be recognized as the more significant milestones did not necessarily stand out and appear so at the times they occurred. Long before the invention of the transistor, the so-called “field. effect,” that is, a conductance change in a solid induced by application of transverse electric field, was the subject of intensive studies by various people. In fact, in the course of these studies, the discovery of transistor action itself was made [2]. As early as the 1920’s and 1930’s, proposals [3], [4] on amplifying devices based on “field effect” were made, however, with little apparent understanding of the physical phenomena. An unequivocal demonstration of the field effect was made by Shockley and Pearson in 1948 in their classic paper [5] in which they showed that an appreciable modulation of conductance in the surface region of a semiconductor occurred. The “field effect“ was subsequently applied to various but essentially similar amplifying device configurations by numerous people. These devices, however, relied on what was recognized as majority (carrier modulation. That is, the transverse electric field caused the majority carrier density to be modulated in a semiconductor bar which in turn resulted in conductance changes between two suitably located ohmic contacts. It is straightforward to show that useful devices based on this principle are achievable only under severe geometrical restrictions. Namely, the ratio

Conceptual Perspective Taking in 2- to 6-Year-Old Children

Abstract: The literature is unclear and controversial as to when children are first able to engage in conceptual perspective taking, that is, to infer another person's thoughts, feelings, or internal states of knowledge (e.g., Borke, 1971; Chandler & Greenspan, 1972). Most studies have found that children younger than 7 years of age are not able to engage in this activity. Flavell, Botkin, Fry, Wright, and Jarvis ("apple-dog story," 1968) arid Chandler and Greenspan (1972) used tasks in which the child had access to information not available to the other person. The child was then required to make an inference about the other's restricted conceptual viewpoint. In both studies it was found that most children under 9 years of age were unable to engage in veridical perspective taking. Using stimuli containing less information and requiring responses with fewer linguistic demands, a few studies have purportedly found evidence of conceptual perspective taking in children as young as 3 or 4 years of age. Borke (1971) had children select a picture to match the affective state of a hypothetical child in a story. She found that children as young as 3 years of age can correctly anticipate the other child's feelings in certain simple contexts. Borke's study has been criticized on the grounds that her task may have been measuring some social skill other than perspective taking. A young child might accurately predict that a person at a birthday party will be happy. Since it is generally shared knowledge that anyone at a birthday party is probably happy, the child need not engage in perspective taking to correctly anticipate the other's feelings. To ensure that perspective taking is required for correct performance, the task must be constructed so that the child's perspective is demonstrably different from that of the other. As Chandler and Greenspan (1972) point out, "Without this important qualification, egocentric and nonegocentric thought result in the same outcome

Sexual behavior as symbolic interaction

Abstract: The aim of this paper is to systematically apply a sociological perspective, specifically that orientation known as symbolic interactionism, to the area of human sexuality. Our task is both conceptual and empirical. At the conceptual level, we have attempted to interpret and view sexual behavior through the concepts and assumptions provided by the symbolic interaction perspective. At the empirical level we have tried to organize research findings in this area which could be incorporated into this perspective. Suggestions have also been offered on future directions for theoretical development with reference to human sexuality. In short, our purpose is to see how far we can go in viewing sexual behavior as symbolic interaction.

Children's Reactions to Pain: A Psychiatrist's Perspective

Abstract: AIN and the reactions to pain are expressed in a diversity of ways at a children's hospital. Pain becomes so closely linked with anxiety and fear that it is directly obvious how anxiety potentiates pain and how pain of itself promotes anxiety. Some children who have had little experience with pain appear startled when pain occurs, like an animal blindecl by the headlights of a car. Occasionally , a child z-vill use pain as an attention getting device, moaning in agony as soon as his parent ~tr~tlks through the door. Chronic pain complicating a chronic illness can promote regression in a child's behavior beyond what may be expected from the chronic illness itself. In a burned child, pain appears to be the central factor in influencing his behavior.' 1 Pain appears to carry the primary responsibility for the feelings of anger, guilt, anxiety, depression, and the tendency tc regression. Nover's five-year-old boy, who lacked sensation below. the waist from birth and incurred a severe leg burn, did not demonstrate the characteristic behavior just described. He ate well and slept well throughout his hospitalization-a notable exception to most children with burns. When looking at pain developmentally, one immediately comes to some very basic questions: At what age do infants feel pain? J When are children able to localize pain? The answers to these simple questions are not totally known. Pain cannot be readily measured. Like anxiety, it has sl subjective quality that eludes precise definition. With adults, pain is often gauged by both verbal and r2c>nverhal communications from the patient. W'ith infants and toddlers, the difficulty is increased because one must rely entirely on nonlanguage observations. Whei-i thinking about responses to pain in infants, we must bear in mind two important components: 1) the perception c~f pain itself; 2) the memory of past pain-the psychic factor. The t~~~~c~te. During circumcision, babies in the first few days of life will commonly react to the clamping of the foreskin. Their reaction is a total body movement. The cries and screams associated with the procedure are generally brief and will cease on distraction. Indeed, some surgeons will operate on neonates without anesthesia for procedures that may last long periods of time.2 2 This is of considerable concern to an