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Showing papers on "Phrase published in 1973"


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: A criterion to measure derivational complexity of formal grammars and languages is proposed and discussed and it is shown that for each nonnegative integer k, there exists a context\3-free language whose rank is k.
Abstract: A criterion to measure derivational complexity of formal grammars and languages is proposed and discussed. That is, the associate language and the L-associate language are defined for a grammar such that the former represents all the valid derivations and the latter represents all the valid leftmost derivations. It is shown that for any phrase\3-structure grammar, the associate language is a contex\3-sensitive language and the L\3-associate language is a context\3-free language. Necessary and sufficient conditions for an associate language to be a regular set and to be a context\3-free language are found. The idea in the above necessary and sufficient conditions is extended to the notion of “rank≓ for a measure of derivational complexity of context\3-free grammars and languages. It is shown that for each nonnegative integer k, there exists a context\3-free language whose rank is k. The paper also includes a few solvable decision problems concerning derivational complexity of grammars.

53 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: The more specific goal was to infer the nature of the speech-production system that generates the speech errors known as synonymic intrusions, a class of behavioral hybrids that occur whenever a speaker begins with one expression and inadvertently continues with another expression having roughly equivalent meaning.
Abstract: The speech errors known as synonymic intrusions (e.g., 'sotally,' an inadvertent combination of initial word 'solely' and sequel word 'totally' in 'He was sotally responsible for that') suggest that two or more words can be simultaneously activated, competing for the same position in a sentence. Statistical analysis of 257 such intrusions showed that the intruding word (or phrase) was simpler than the initial one at the segment, syllabic, lexical, and at two syntactic levels. A hierarchic model for the serial production of speech, and more generally, for the study of other motor systems, is proposed. Speech errors place strong constraints on theories of speech production, since an adequate model of normal speech must also allow for those errors, as does the actual speech-production system. Conversely, an adequate explanation of speech errors must incorporate the general principles of normal speech production, in the sense that an explanation of the backfiring of an automobile engine must incorporate the general principles of internal combustion. The present study explores some of the implications of this metatheory for theories of speech production as well as other motor systems. Our more specific goal was to infer the nature of the speech-production system that generates the speech errors known as synonymic intrusions. Synonymic intrusions represent a class of behavioral hybrids that occur whenever a speaker begins with one expression (defined as the initial phrase or word) and inadvertently continues with another expression having roughly equivalent meaning. The intruding constituent is defined as the sequel phrase or word. Consider the synonymic intrusion 'I am together,' an inadvertent combination of 'I am with you' (initial phrase) and 'We are together' (sequel phrase). What must be explained in such combinations is why the initial phrase stops where it does. One might suggest that the speaker is switching his message or revising his meaning when he makes such errors. But the fact that the initial and sequel phrases are synonymic, or semantically

37 citations


Book
01 Jan 1973
TL;DR: The authors provide a self-help guide to the study of the Maori language and a complete grammar reference, covering parts of speech, the structure of each type of phrase and the combinations of phrases that form simple sentences.
Abstract: This work comprises a textbook and self-help guide to the study of the Maori language. It is also a complete grammar reference, covering parts of speech, the structure of each type of phrase and the combinations of phrases that form simple sentences. Each aspect of the grammar is discussed in a numbered section or subsection of the book and a combined vocabulary and index provides a reference system.

29 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: The authors compared imitation and modeling in a multiple-baseline individual analysis with the normal environment of language acquisition and found that imitation training was effective for every phrase type and subject while modeling was effective only for some subjects and some phrase types.

27 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: An implementation strategy for a vocal data management system (VDMS) that will accept connected speech of a language describable by 25-50 phrase equations and having a vocabulary of approximately 1000 words formed from about 100 data records is described.
Abstract: This paper describes an implementation strategy for a vocal data management system (VDMS) being developed by the voice input/output project at the System Development Corporation. VDMS will accept connected speech of a language describable by 25-50 phrase equations and having a vocabulary of approximately 1000 words formed from about 100 data records. The strategy is based on the concept of predictive linguistic constraints (PLC). The present concepts of fixed directionality in parsing are replaced by a more generalized approach. To facilitate this flexibility, the system comprises a set of near-independent coroutines that are interconnected by a software busing structure. The VDMS acoustic processors verify the predictions. Very loose matching criteria are used for locating the predicted words. Special attention is given to word segments that are experimentally determined to be most invariant.

22 citations




Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: Sentences recorded with pauses at major phrase boundaries, pauses within major phrases boundaries, and with no pauses were presented to 18 children with a mean age of three years, eight months, and six months.
Abstract: Sentences recorded with pauses at major phrase boundaries, pauses within major phrase boundaries, and with no pauses were presented to 18 children with a mean age of three years, eight months, and ...

8 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: This article found that the Ss made absolute frequency judgments of words presented in short-phrase contexts, and that frequency judgment was highest when the entire phrase was repeated intact, next highest when context changed but the critical word retained the same meaning and lowest when both the context and meaning changed on each presentation.
Abstract: The Ss made absolute frequency judgments of words presented in short-phrase contexts. Judgments were highest when the entire phrase was repeated intact, next highest when the context changed but the critical word retained the same meaning, and lowest when both the context and meaning changed on each presentation. Recognition memory was not systematically affected by the context variable. The results provide further support for the view that frequency judgment and recognition memory are not equivalent processes.

6 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: Differentiated staffing is a fundamental change, not a peripheral one, in school personnel practices, contends the writer, who feels it gives true meaning to the phrase "career ladder".
Abstract: Differentiated staffing is a fundamental change, not a peripheral one, in school personnel practices, contends the writer, who feels it gives true meaning to the phrase "career ladder." He adds that it deserves both careful attention and study by educators.

4 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: Analysis of a questionnaire about the experience of “having the teeth set on edge” indicated a clear split between Ss interpreting the phrase as applying to sensation-based as opposed to emotion-based experiences, which may have implications about the process of learning terms to describe one's psychological state.
Abstract: 385 undergraduates filled out a questionnaire about the experience of “having the teeth set on edge.” Analysis indicated a clear split between Ss interpreting the phrase as applying to sensation-ba...


Book ChapterDOI
TL;DR: This chapter discusses grammar of existential sentences and argues that although the underlying structure of both existential and deictic sentences contain expressions of the form, “Preposition+Noun” Phrase the difference between them centers around the fact that in existential sentences these are not Iocatives—except in some extended sense of the term.
Abstract: Publisher Summary This chapter discusses grammar of existential sentences. The chapter discusses how existential sentences differ from deictic sentences. The correct analysis of existential sentences shows how they differ from deictic sentences. Lyons recognizes this problem and gives an ingenious account of how there is to be interpreted in existential sentences in such a way as to distinguish them from deictic sentences. However he assumes that in both cases there derives from an adverbial phrase of place. Against this it will be argued here that although the underlying structure of both existential and deictic sentences contain expressions of the form, “Preposition+Noun” Phrase the difference between them centers around the fact that in existential sentences these are not Iocatives—except in some extended sense of the term. Sentences have three essential structural characteristics. The first is that the main verb is “be.” The second is that they contain an indefinite noun phrase. The third is that the indefinite noun phrase is followed by a locative noun phrase.

Journal ArticleDOI
01 Jun 1973-Language
TL;DR: The authors argued that the appearance of a competition among different but equally informative proposals of "deep" structures appears to be arbitrary as well as undesirable. But they also pointed out that semantic tendencies operate within the framework of grammatical rules, but are no part of it.
Abstract: Choice between different but equally informative proposals of 'deep' (or 'underlying') structures appears to be arbitrary as well as undesirable. The appearance of rivalry among them is due to misrepresenting, in terms of alternative rules (constraints), what are in fact compatible tendencies. Realization of these tendencies, unlike the operation of rules, depends on specific lexical choice and context. Semantic tendencies operate within the framework of grammatical rules, but are no part of it. It is the freedom of ad-hoc choice among them, rather than any generative mechanism, that constitutes the truly creative aspect of language. Anyone surveying present-day linguistic studies will find that linguists of the most diverse persuasions tend to view syntactic constructions in some such way as Saussure viewed the linguistic sign-Janus-like, facing in two directions: each sentence or phrase being endowed with, on the one hand, a surface structure adapted to its phonetic representation, and, on the other, a deep structure which is adapted to its semantic representation. Clearly, there is something uncontroversial about this view; in SOME sense, a sentence or phrase-like any sign-has meaning as well as form. Yet how exactly to make sense of this truism is more problematic; more especially, the assumption that we can make sense of the two aspects of a sentence or phrase, its form and its meaning, by ascribing two transformationally related structures to it, seems dubious. Through being divided and related in this way, both seem to suffer from arbitrariness: the surface structures for lack of functional semantic controls, and the deep structures for lack of decisive formal evidence. As to surface structures, we are told explicitly that they are inadequate; and everyone will agree. But we are also told that their 'labeled bracketing' (which is, on the whole, traditional IC-analysis) is more or less uncontroversial. The deficiencies are not to be amended or replaced; they are to be cured by SUPPLEMENTATION: by deriving those labeled bracketings from more informative deep structures. This uncritical acceptance of traditional IC-analyses-so very different from the attitude of those who first proposed them-is of course difficult to justify. The placing of the brackets is very largely inexplicit guesswork, and the labeling very largely dogmatic orthodoxy-not to speak of the arbitrary assumption that constituents must be continuous, for the purely notational reason that discontinuous constituents would not sit comfortably on the branches of tree diagrams. All this seems to be so unprincipled and obscure as to be incapable of a cure by mere supplementation. For the present, however, I propose to ignore this side of the dichotomy, and turn to an examination of Janus's other face. (For some further discussion of the problem of 'surface structure', cf. Haas 1972, 1973.) It seems to be generally accepted that the supplementary information provided by deep structures is primarily semantic information. The much discussed difference between those who, like Chomsky, stipulate a further interpretive 282

Proceedings Article
01 Jan 1973
TL;DR: The Junction Grammar model of language is examined, then the model of translation suggested by themodel of language, and finally an application of the model to mechanical translation or, as the authors prefer to term it, computer-assisted translation are examined.
Abstract: 1. The Junction Grammar Model of Language. Junction Grammar is a generative grammar with multiple levels of representation. The deep level is a nonlexical conceptual level, where the meaning of a segment of discourse is represented by a set of intersecting branching trees, each tree consisting of conceptual units (or sememes) and junctions. 1 The junction patterns (whence the name, Junction Grammar) are selected from a finite language-independent pool, and are used to describe the relationships between the sememes. The basic concepts of Junction Grammar were developed at Brigham Young University by Dr. Eldon G. Lytle from 1968 to 1970, but significant refinements to the theory continue to be added. We will first examine the Junction Grammar model of language, then the model of translation suggested by the model of language, and finally an application of the model to mechanical translation or, as we prefer to term it, computer-assisted translation. The Junction Grammar model distinguishes four levels of representation (see Fig. 1). Level I is the real world, where objects represent themselves. Level II is the conceptual level at which we postulate that a person has a pool of base sememes from which he draws to form segments of discourse by the application of junction rules. These sememes correspond to a particular meaning of a word, phrase, or part of a word at level IV. At level II, we call a meaningful segment of discourse a “Well-Formed Syntacto-semantic Statement” or WFSS (pronounced /wufəsəs/). A WFSS is a statement about the syntax which joins a set of concepts to form a segment of discourse. This level II syntax is not to be confused with surface syntax, which deals with such matters as word order. Our 1 Other work in the area of conceptual grammar includes that of Roger Schank at

BookDOI
01 Jan 1973
TL;DR: This thesis sets out a description of the Grammer of the Bisa language of West Africa, and particularly the Lebiri Dialect thereof, and describes non-Morphonemic features with syntactic significance and Morphophonemic relations between Syntax and Phonology.
Abstract: This thesis sets out a description of the Grammer of the Bisa language of West Africa, and particularly the Lebiri Dialect thereof. An introductory chapter (Chap.. 1 p.12) describe the people and their back-ground, and explains the research on which the thesis is based and the hierarchical mode in which the Grammar is presented. A section of this chapter (1.5, PP 61 ff ) gives a sketch of the phonology as an explanation of the transcriptions used in the citation of Bisa examples. Chapters 2 to 7 present the main matter of the analysis, viz. the Syntax of Lebiri Bisa in a Syntagmatic presentation. The successive Ranks of the hierarchy set up are described in terms of their structures and functions in these chapters: Chapter 2 treats of the Higher Ranks, Chapter 3 of the Sentence, Chapter 4 of the Clause, Chapter 5 covers the Phrase, and Chapter 6 the Word, while Morpheme Rank is dealt with in Chapter 7. The eighth and final Chapter describes non-Morphonemic features with syntactic significance find The Morphophonemic relations between Syntax and Phonology. The thesis concludes with Appendices presenting Texts in transcrption with accompanying, vocabulary, notes on Dialects and Ideophones and Exclamations, and finally with a Bibliography.

Book ChapterDOI
01 Jan 1973
TL;DR: The outcome of the considerations in the following strongly suggest that Gruber’s proposals concerning the function of the lexicon provide an adequate means for the solution of a set of problems connected with measure phrase sentences.
Abstract: The purpose of this article is to report on some results of preliminary work on certain phenomena exhibited in measure phrase sentences, particularly (but not exclusively) in Dutch. In this article, I will leave the constituents called ‘measure phrases’ unanalyzed, restricting myself to the problem of accounting for reduction in a certain type of sentences containing them. Most of what I am going to say should be considered tentative. Nonetheless, I believe that the outcome of the considerations in the following strongly suggest that Gruber’s proposals concerning the function of the lexicon1 provide an adequate means for the solution of a set of problems connected with measure phrase sentences.

Book
01 Jan 1973
TL;DR: A dictionary of unusual, obscure and frequently misunderstood words in the English language is presented in this paper, which deals with what people really say, the reasons why, and gives the stories which lie behind the odd and puzzling words and phrases which we use daily without a second thought until we wonder why.
Abstract: A dictionary of unusual, obscure and frequently misunderstood words in the English language. It deals with what people really say, the reasons why. It gives the stories which lie behind the odd and puzzling words and phrases which we use daily without a second thought until we wonder why.

Proceedings ArticleDOI
27 Aug 1973
TL;DR: The ALS-Rules comprehend several laws to limit syntagms, which are made clear by algorithms or verbal definitions, and thus keep all information-expressions and -performances in the scope of a natural language system.
Abstract: Hundreds of differentiated syntactic rules as well as all kinds of phrase structures and conventions are dispersed over more than fifty s ill existing natural language systems. On the contrary meanings, represented by nouns, verbs and adjectives are internationally identical. Only the way they are carried and expressed by various national languages differs. Thus a fundamental division into two parts represents the main feature of the ALGORITHM OF LIMITED SYNTAX (ALS). This ALS-Division of natural language systems provides two groups of words:a) words representing nouns, verbs and adjectives as so called «content words» or more easily nominated as RADICALS andb) words expressing syntactic features and functions, the SYNTAX-PAR TICLES.While the human treasure of knowledge in form of meanings expressed by content-words is in no way curtailed by ALS-Rules, the vast .jungle of still existing syntactical features and syntagms will be drastically cooked down to the essentials. Thus the ALS-Rules comprehend several laws to limit syntagms, which are made clear by algorithms or verbal definitions. Still the limitations enforced by ALS-Rules are based on language universals and thus keep all information-expressions and -performances in the scope of a natural language system.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: The data support several tentative conclusions that different‐sized utterances have different levels of temporal interaction and there appears to be no basic unit of timing for English utterances, but a hierarchy of timing errors.
Abstract: Recent timing control research has shown that when a smaller linguistic segment within a repeated utterance is produced either shorter or longer than its average duration, the resulting deviation constitutes a timing error that is temporally compensated by the remaining segments in the utterance. In the present study, timing errors and the extent to which they are compensated define different levels of temporal interaction. Temporal interactions were studied within a phrase spoken in isolation and within the same phrase spoken in a sentence context. The data, presented as significant negative Pearson correlations (p < 0.05) between various adjacent segment durations, support several tentative conclusions on the timing control of repeated utterances: (1) different‐sized utterances have different levels of temporal interaction; (2) temporal interaction effects extend across phoneme, syllable, word, and phrase boundaries; (3) there appears to be no basic unit of timing for English utterances, but a hierarchy...

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: For the higher order units, such as phonemic phrase, word, morpheme, and syllable, a hierarchical model is proposed in this article to describe the sequence of events leading to output and resolving problems of overlap.
Abstract: Today, one seldom hears of the unit of speech production. Speech error data, in particular, have made it clear that every linguistic unit from “phonemic phrase” through “word,” “morpheme,” “syllable,” and “phoneme” to “distinctive feature” is useful to the speech production theorist in that each allows him to conceptualize processes whereby the speaker manipulates unitary variables in his output. As some of these units must be “activated” prior to others in the organization of output, and as some units actually overlap structurally with others, we require a hierarchical model specifying the sequence of events leading to output and resolving problems of overlap. Some clues to the form of this model are available. Very little is known about the higher order units—phonemic phrase, word, morpheme—in this regard. For the lower‐order units much conceptual difficulty remains, including questions asked to the physical manifestation of the syllable, and the inventory of phonemes and features. Most work in linguist...


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors studied the use of mnemonic words or phrases for the recall and recognition of numbers in Japanese and found that the mnemonics were especially efficient when they were meaningful and related to the corresponding names or other'stimulus' words.
Abstract: Summary.-Undergraduate students learned paired-associates, with names of shops as stimulus-terms and sets of 4 digits ("telephone numbers") as response-terms. In Exp. I, Ss, by assigning one of several alternative pronunciations, or "readings," to each digit, as permitted in modern Japanese, were quickly able to produce mnemonic words or phrases for about half the 20 pairs, and these devices greatly facilitated Ss' recall and recognition of the numbers. In Exp. 11, experimental Ss given these mnemonic phrases performed significantly better in recall and recognition of the numbers than control Ss. The nature of verbal 'coding' is discussed in detail. Daily observation suggests that many Japanese use mnemonics when they try co remember a series of digits, e.g., telephone numbers, addresses, etc. The digits are read (pronounced) so that the series of readings (pronunciations) makes a word or phrase. Such mnemonic words or phrases are especially efficient when they are not only meaningful but related to the corresponding names or other 'stimulus' words. To allow for a variety of meaningful and related phrases there must be at least several differenr readings for each digit. Since Japanese employs two counting systems, each digit has two pronunciations, and their abbreviations and variations necessarily increase che number of possible alternatives. Thus, for example, the number 2 has :hree very common readings: nil fata and fu. Most Japanese can easily reproduce the digit 2 from any of these readings. Therefore, a series of digits is memorized and scored as a word/phrase and the digits are retrieved from that word/phrase. This situation gives us a unique opportunity for studying mnemonics. In all earlier studies on the use of mnemonics dealing with number (Bugelski, Kidd, & Segmen, 1968; Keppel & Zavortink, 1969; Paivio, 1968; Smith & Noble, 1965), words were response-terms and their position numbers were stimulusterms, either manifest (where paired-associate learning was used) or lacent (in serial learning studies). After this, they were encouraged to make an image incorporating both stimulus- and response-terms. Such "imagery" is considered by most to be an essential component of any effective mnemonics. The present study of mnemonics uansforming digits as response-terms will give us new insights into the nature of verbal 'coding.' In addition, in all previous studies

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: The JABBERWOCKY is a system that greatly simplifies the transcription of verbal protocols by acting as a “smart” tape recorder which plays exactly a phrase at a time.
Abstract: The JABBERWOCKY is a system that greatly simplifies the transcription of verbal protocols by acting as a “smart” tape recorder which plays exactly a phrase at a time. In addition, it provides timings accurate to a centisecond. The final result is available as a file on a computer system that then may be used for other editing or processing.