Showing papers on "Population published in 1971"

The assessment and analysis of handedness

Abstract: The need for a simply applied quantitative assessment of handedness is discussed and some previous forms reviewed. An inventory of 20 items with a set of instructions and response- and computational-conventions is proposed and the results obtained from a young adult population numbering some 1100 individuals are reported. The separate items are examined from the point of view of sex, cultural and socio-economic factors which might appertain to them and also of their inter-relationship to each other and to the measure com- puted from them all. Criteria derived from these considerations are then applied to eliminate 10 of the original 20 items and the results recomputed to provide frequency-distribution and cumulative frequency functions and a revised item-analysis. The difference of incidence of handedness between the sexes is discussed.

Belief in the law of small numbers

Abstract: Reports that people have erroneous intuitions about the laws of chance. In particular, they regard a sample randomly drawn from a population as highly representative, I.e., similar to the population in all essential characteristics. The prevalence of the belief and its unfortunate consequences for psychological research are illustrated by the responses of 84 professional psychologists to a questionnaire concerning research decisions. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved) Language: en

Transplacental carcinogenesis by stilbestrol

Abstract: Herbst, Ulfelder and Poskanzer1 were the first to notice a high correlation between adenocarcinoma of the vagina in adolescent girls and prior maternal ingestion of diethylstilbestrol. This is a stunning observation. It is supported by five more cases described in this issue by Greenwald et al. In a previous editorial2 Langmuir discussed some clinical and scientific implications of this discovery. Further speculations are now warranted. Neither Herbst nor Greenwald studied a large number of mothers with repeated bleeding or previous pregnancy loss who did not receive stilbestrol. This omission is irrelevant, however, because of the extreme rarity of adenocarcinoma of . . .

Impact of Population Growth

Abstract: There have been some questionable assertions relating to population growth. The most serious of these is the notion that the size and growth rate of the U.S. population are only minor contributors to this countrys adverse impact on local and global environment. The discussion in this article centers around 5 theorems which demonstrate the following: 1) population growth causes a disproportionate negative impact on the environment 2) the control of population is necessary but not sufficient means of seeing us through the whole crisis of environmental deterioration 3) population density is a poor measure of population pressure 4) environment as a term must be broadly construed to include physical environment of urban ghettos as well as the human behavioral environment and 5) theoratical solutions to out problems are not operational and some times are not solutions. The paper concludes that population control the redirection of technology the transition from open to closed resouce cycles the equitable distribution of opportunity and the ingredients of prosperity must all be accomplished if there is to be a future worth living.

Clock Mutants of Drosophila melanogaster

Abstract: Three mutants have been isolated in which the normal 24-hour rhythm is drastically changed. One mutant is arrhythmic; another has a period of 19 hr; a third has a period of 28 hr. Both the eclosion rhythm of a population and the locomotor activity of individual flies are affected. All these mutations appear to involve the same functional gene on the X chromosome.

The Epidemiologic Transition: A Theory of the Epidemiology of Population Change

Abstract: Although demography continues to be the most prominent discipline concerned with population dynamics, involvement of other disciplines is highly desirable. The case for a multidisciplinary approach to population theory has been aptly stated by Kurt Mayer: “Any meaningful interpretation of the cause and effects of population changes must … extend beyond formal statistical measurement of the components of change, i.e. fertility, mortality and migration, and draw on the theoretical framework of several other disciplines for assistance (Mayer 1962).” In noting that the “analysis of the causal determinants and consequences of population change forms the subject matter of population theory,” Mayer inferentially acknowledges the epidemiologic character of population phenomena, for as its etymology indicates, (epi, upon; demos, people; logos, study), epidemiology is the study of what “comes upon” groups of people. More specifically, epidemiology is concerned with the distribution of disease and death, and with their determinants and consequences in population groups. Inasmuch as patterns of health and disease are integral components of population change, epidemiology's reservoir of knowledge about these patterns and their determinants in population groups serves not only as a basis for prediction of population change but also as a source of hypotheses that can be further tested to correct, refine and build population theory. Furthermore, many epidemiologic techniques that have heretofore been limited to the examination of health and disease patterns can be profitably applied as well to the exploration of other mass phenomena, such as fertility control. A theory of epidemiologic transition, sensitive to the formulations of population theorists who have stressed the demographic, biologic, sociologic, economic and psychologic ramifications of transitional processes, was conceived by this author less than four years ago. Recognition of the limitations of demographic transition theory and of the need for comprehensive approaches to population dynamics stimulated the development of this theory (Van Nort and Karon 1955; Micklin 1968).

Solute perturbation of protein fluorescence. The quenching of the tryptophyl fluorescence of model compounds and of lysozyme by iodide ion.

Abstract: The effect of iodide on the tryptophyl fluorescence of model compounds and of lysozyme was studied in order to evaluate the factors that determine the use of iodide as a selective quencher of the fluorescence of tryptophyl side chains of proteins exposed to solvent. The results with the model compounds indicate the involvement of a collisional quenching mechanism due to the agreement with the Stern-Volmer law and the proportionality of the quenching constant with To7 for indole-3-acetamide. Bimolecular rate constants, k a , calculated from measured quenching constants using available lifetime data are equal to, greater than, or less than 4-6 X lo9 M-' sec-l for uncharged, positively charged, and negaI n a preliminary study it was shown that a large fraction of the tryptophyi fluorescence of lysozyme in aqueous solution was quenched by low concentrations of iodide ion (Lehrer, lY67). It was concluded from a study of the magnitude of the quenching of fluorescence and the character of the difference fluorescence spectrum produced in the presence and absence of substrate that the fluorescence of tryptophyls exposed to solvent and located in the substrate binding site was preferentially quenched by iodide. It appeared that this technique, which can be called solute perturbation of protein fluorescence, could be used as a probe of fluorophor exposure in proteins in a manner analogous to the technique of solvent perturbation of protein absorption (Herskovits and Laskowski, 1960; Laskowski, 1966). * From the Department of Muscle Research, Boston Biomedical Research Institute, Boston, Massachusetts 021 14, and from the Department of Neurology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massuchusetts 02115. Receired April 22, 1971. This work was supported by grants from the National Institutes of Health (AM 11677 and HE 0581 1) and the iMass'ichuserts Heart Association (516). tively charged tryptophyl compounds, respectively. A modified version of the Stern-Volmer law was calculated for a fluorophor population with different quantum yields and quenching constants. This formulation allows the calculation of the effective quenching constant from the intercept and the slope at low iodide concentration of a F o ] M cs. l/(I-) plot. Data obtained for lysozyme indicate that for the native protein about one-half the tryptophyl fluorescence is accessible at pH 5.3 whereas all of the tryptophyl fluorescence is accessible in 6 M G d n . HCI. Information regarding the presence of charged groups near tryptophyl side chains was obtained for lysozyme by studying the dependence of the quenching on pH. More recently, studies by other workers have ~ised bromate (Winkler, 1969) and iodide (Arrio er al., 1970) to quench extrinsic fluorescence (Teale and Badley, 1970). Oxygen has also been used as a quencher of pyrenebutyric acid bound to proteins (Vaughan and Weber, 1970). Burstein (1968a) has also independently studied the quenching of tryptophyl fluorescence in model compounds by iodide. In order to learn more about the quenching mechanism and the factors which determine fluorophor exposure, various tryptophyl model compounds and a model protein, lysozyme. were used in the present study. The results of the model compound study provide evidence for a mechanism that follows the classical Stern-Volmer law (1919), predominantly involving collisional quenching, and illustrate the importance of local charge and solvent viscosity. The quenching of lysozyme fluorescence by iodide also appears to follow a similar mechanism because of the agreement obtained with a inodified version of the Stern-Volmer law which was calculated for a heterogeneous distribution of fluorophors in a protein. Effective Stern-Volmer quenching constants and values for the fractional accessible fluorescence were obtained for lyso3254 B I O C H E M I S T R Y , V O L . 1 0 , N O . 1 7 , 1 9 7 1 I O D I D E Q U E N C H I N G O F P R O T E I N F L U O R E S C E N C E zyme in 6 M Gdn.HCI, 'S M urea, and in aqueous solution at different pH's using the modified Stern--Volmer law. Values obtained are consistent with information regarding accessibility obtained by other methods. Experimental Section Muteriais. The following high-purity compounds were used as obtained from Mann Research Laboratories, New York, N. Y. : indole-3-acetic acid, indole-3-propionic acid, indole-3-butyric acid, indole-3-acetamide, N-Ac-L-TrpNH?, L-TrpOEt, Gdn . HCI, and urea. L-Trp (Cyclo Chemical Corp., Los Angeles), KI , Na&03, citric acid, and NaCl (Fisher Scientific Co., Freehold, N. J.) were all of high purity and used as obtained. Indole (Fisher) and skatole (3-methylindole) (Mann) were recrystallized from methanol containing Norit A (Matheson Coleman & Bell, Rutherford, N. J.). Hepes buffer was used as obtained from Calbiochem (Los Angeles). Poly(Glug9Trp1) and poly(Lysg7Trp3) were high molecular weight random sequence copolymers kindly supplied by Dr. G. Fasman. Lysozyme from two different sources were used (twice crystallized from Worthington Biochemical Corp., Freehold, N. J., and six-times crystallized from Miles Laboratories, Elkhart, Ind.). Both preparations gave similar results. Ac3Glcn was kindly supplied by Dr. J. Rupley and glycol chitin was obtained from Miles Laboratories. Methods. Quenching measurements at constant pH were made on five solutions of a given material containing increasing amounts of K I (0-0.2 M). These were prepared by diluting stock solutions of the model compound, of KI, of NaC1, and of buffer, into volumetric flasks. NaCl was used to keep the ionic strength constant. Stock solutions of the indole compounds were used within a few days of preparation and kept in the dark at 0-5" overnight. A small amount of SO3?(ca. M) was added to the iodide solution to prevent 1 3 formation. This was necessary because Isabsorbs in the wavelength region of tryptophyl fluorescence (filter effect) and because of possible chemical reaction. The solutions were equilibrated at 25 O before the measurements. Stock solutions of lysozyme were routinely filtered through a Millipore filter (HAWP 0.45 p ) before use. pH titrations were performed in the absence and presence of iodide by adding small quantities of 0.5 M HC1 to the solution in the cuvet, which contained 2 mM Hepes and 2 mM citrate, originally pH 8, then measuring the pH and fluorescence. pH was measured with a Radiometer PHM4c meter standardized at pH 4 and 7. Fluorescence spectra and intensities were measured by exciting a t 280 nm or longer. In most cases no corrections for iodide absorption were necessary. The fluorescence of a reference (usually the 0.2 M NaC1-0.0 M K I solution) was measured just before measuring the fluorescence of each solution in order t o correct for any exciting lamp fluctuation. Fluorescence measurements were made with either an Aminco-Bowman spectrofluorometer or an instrument that employs two Jarrell-Ash 0.25-m monochromators, an EM1 9601 B photomultiplier, and either a high-pressure 200-W mercury lamp or a 150-W high-pressure xenon lamp. Low temperatures were obtained with a refrigerated water circulator attached to the sample housing. The temperature was measured by inserting a calibrated thermistor into the sample solution. Abbreviations used are: Gdn . HCI, guanidine hydrochloride; Trp, tryptophyl or tryptophan; Hepes, N-2-hydroxyethylpiperazine-N'2-ethanesulfonic acid ; Ac3GIcii. tri-N-acetyl-D-glucosamirie. The activity of lysozyme was determined by the method of Hamaguchi et a/ . (1960). The decrease in viscosity with time caused by hydrolysis of glycol chitin (2 mg/ml) by lysozyme (0.02 mg/ml) in the presence of 0.2 M NaCl or 0.2 M KI in 2 m M citrate (pH 5.5) is the basis of this method. The specific viscosity of glycol chitin solutions in Cannon viscometers at 25" was measured with time after a small volume of lysozyme was added. The slope of the approximately linear viscosity decrease between 1 and 10 min was used as a measure of activity. The optical rotatory dispersion and circular dichroism spectra of lysozyme (0.95 mg/ml) in 0.2 M NaCl or in 0.2 M KI , 2 mM citrate (pH 5.2) were measured in a 1-cm cell with a Jasco spectropolarimeter. The absorbance of Iprevented measurements below 265 nm. Difference spectra were either measured with a Cary 15 or a Beckman DK spectrophotometer using mixing cells (Pyrocell, Inc., N. Y . ) . The total absorption over the wavelengths scanned was always below 2.2. The low-temperature studies were performed with a Beckman D K using a refrigerated sample holder.

The location of emergency service facilities

Abstract: This paper views the location of emergency facilities as a set covering problem with equal costs in the objective The sets are composed of the potential facility points within a specified time or

The population bomb

Abstract: Finally with characteristic myopia those breathing a sigh of relief at the prospect of "only" 280 million Americans by 2000 A.D. neglect to consider what will happen in the early years of the next century as their children struggle to survive. For even with luck we are doomed to continued population growth until at least 2045 and the projected population size then will be over three hundred million. Hardly a pleasant prospect for a nation now failing to provide properly for 205 million people. (excerpt)

A General Model for the Genetic Analysis of Pedigree Data

Abstract: Assuming random mating and random sampling of pedigrees, the likelihood of a set of pedigree data is developed in terms of: (1) the population distribution of the different genotypes; (2) the phenotyp

Microfilaments in Cellular and Developmental Processes

Abstract: In our opinion, all of the phenomena that are inhibited by cytochalasin can be thought of as resulting from contractile activity of cellular organelles. Smooth muscle contraction, clot retraction, beat of heart cells, and shortening of the tadpole tail are all cases in which no argument of substance for alternative causes can be offered. The morphogenetic processes in epithelia, contractile ring function during cytokinesis, migration of cells on a substratum, and streaming in plant cells can be explained most simply on the basis of contractility being the causal event in each process. The many similarities between the latter cases and the former ones in which contraction is certain argue for that conclusion. For instance, platelets probably contract, possess a microfilament network, and behave like undulating membrane organelles. Migrating cells possess undulating membranes and contain a similar network. It is very likely, therefore, that their network is also contractile. In all of the cases that have been examined so far, microfilaments of some type are observed in the cells; furthermore, those filaments are at points where contractility could cause the respective phenomenon. The correlations from the cytochalasin experiments greatly strengthen the case; microfilaments are present in control and "recovered" cells and respective biological phenomena take place in such cells; microfilaments are absent or altered in treated cells and the phenomena do not occur. The evidence seems overwhelming that microfilaments are the contractile machinery of nonmuscle cells. The argument is further strengthened if we reconsider the list of processes insensitive to cytochalasin (Table 2). Microtubules and their sidearms, plasma membrane, or synthetic machinery of cells are presumed to be responsible for such processes, and colchicine, membrane-active drugs, or inhibitors of protein synthesis are effective at inhibiting the respective phenomena. These chemical agents would not necessarily be expected to affect contractile apparatuses over short periods of time, they either do not or only secondarily interfere with the processes sensitive to cytochalasin (Table 1). It is particularly noteworthy in this context that microtubules are classed as being insensitive to cytochalasin and so are not considered as members of the "contractile microfilament" family. The overall conclusion is that a broad spectrum of cellular and developmental processes are caused by contractile apparatuses that have at least the common feature of being sensitive to cytochalasin. Schroeder's important insight (3) has, then, led to the use of cytochalasin as a diagnostic tool for such contracile activity: the prediction is that sensitivity to the drug implies presence of some type of contractile microfilament system. Only further work will define the limits of confidence to be placed upon such diagnoses. The basis of contraction in microfilament systems is still hypothetical. Contraction of glycerol-extracted cells in response to adenosine triphosphate (53), extraction of actin-like or actomyosin-like proteins from cells other than muscle cells (54), and identification of activity resembling that of the actomyosin-adenosine triphosphatase system in a variety of nonmuscle tissues (40, 54) are consistent with the idea that portions of the complex, striated muscle contractile system may be present in more primitive contractile machinery. In the case of the egg cortex, calcium-activated contractions can be inhibited by cytochalasin. If, as seems likely, microfilaments are the agents activated by calcium, then it will be clear that they have the same calcium requirement as muscle. Biochemical analyses of primitive contractile systems are difficult to interpret. Ishikawa's important observation (31), that heavy meromyosin complexes with fine filaments oriented parallel to the surface of chondrocytes and perpendicular to the surface of intestinal epithelial cells, implies that both types of filaments are "actin-like" in this one respect. Yet, it is very likely that these actin-like filaments correspond respectively to the cytochalasin-insensitive sheath of glial and heart fibroblasts and the core filaments of oviduct microvilli. No evidence from our studies links contractility directly to these meromyosin-binding filaments. Apart from this problem, activity resembling that of the myosin-adenosine triphosphatase has been associated with the microtubule systems of sperm tails and cilia (55), but those organelles are insensitive to cytochalasin in structure and function. Clearly, a means must be found to distinguish between enzymatic activities associated with microfilament networks, microfilament bundles, microtubules, and the sheath filaments of migratory cells. Until such distinctions are possible, little of substance can be said about the molecular bases of primitive contractile systems. Three variables are important for the control of cellular processes dependent upon microfilaments: (i) which cells of a population shall manufacture and assemble the filaments; (ii) where filaments shall be assembled in cells; and (iii) when contractility shall occur. With respect to distribution among cells, the networks involved in cell locomotion are presumed to be present in all cells that have the potential to move in cell culture. In this respect, the networks can be regarded as a common cellular organelle in the sense that cytoplasmic microtubules are so regarded. In some developing systems, all cells of an epithelium possess microfilament bundles (7, 13), whereas, in others, only discrete subpopulations possess the bundles (5, 6). In these cases the filaments can be regarded as being differentiation products associated only with certain cell types. These considerations may be related to the fact that microfilament networks are associated with behavior of individual cells (such as migration, wound healing, and cytokinesis), whereas the bundles are present in cells that participate in coordinated changes in shape of cell populations. With respect to placement in cells, two alternatives are apparent, namely, localized or ubiquitous association with the plasma membrane. Microfilament bundles of epithelial cells are only found extending across the luminal and basal ends of cells. In this respect they contrast with desmosomal tonofilaments and with microtubules, each of which can curve in a variety of directions through the cell. The strict localization of microfilament bundles probably rests upon their association with special junctional complex insertion regions that are only located near the ends of cells. In the case of mitotically active cells, the orientation of the spindle apparatus may determine the site at which the contractile ring of microfilaments will form (4, 56); this raises the question of what sorts of cytoplasmic factors can influence the process of association between filament systems and plasma membranes. In contrast to such cases of localized distribution, contractile networks responsible for cell locomotion are probably found beneath all of the plasma membrane, just as the network of thrombosthenin may extend to all portions of the periphery of a blood platelet. This ubiquitous distribution probably accounts for the ability of a fibroblast or glial cell to establish an undulating membrane at any point on its edge, or of an axon to form lateral microspikes along its length. The third crucial aspect of control of these contractile apparatuses involves the choice of when contraction shall occur (and as a corollary the degree or strength of contraction that will occur). In the simplest situation, contraction would follow automatically upon assembly of the microfilament bundles or networks. In cleavage furrows of marine embryos (4), for instance, microfilaments are seen beneath the central cleavage furrow and at its ends, but not beyond, under the portion of plasma membrane that will subsequently become part of the furrow. This implies that the furrow forms very soon after the contractile filaments are assembled in the egg cortex. In other cases, microfilaments are apparently assembled but not in a state of (maximal?) contraction. Thus, networks are seen along the sides of migratory cells, although such regions are not then active as undulating membrane organelles. Similarly, microfilament bundles occur in all epithelial cells of the salivary gland (13), or pancreatic anlage (7), although only the ones at discrete points are thought to generate morphogenetic tissue movements. Likewise, bundles begin to appear as early as 12 hours after estrogen administration to oviduct, although visible tubular gland formation does not start until 24 to 30 hours. Finally, streaming in plant cells can wax and wane, depending upon external factors such as auxin (57). All of these cases imply a control mechanism other than mere assembly of the microfilament systems and even raise the possibility that within one cell some filaments may be contracting while others are not. In discussing this problem, it must be emphasized that different degrees of contraction or relaxation cannot as yet be recognized with the electron microscope. In fact, every one of the cases cited above could be explained by contraction following immediately upon some subtle sort of "assembly." Inclusive in the latter term are relations between individual filaments, relations of the filaments and their insertion points on plasma membrane, and quantitative alterations in filament systems. Furthermore, the critical role of calcium and high-energy compounds in muscle contraction suggest that equivalent factors may be part of primitive, cytochalasinsensitive systems. The finding that calcium-induced contraction in the cortex of eggs is sensitive to cytochalasin strengthens that supposition and emphasizes the importance of compartmentalization of cofactors as a means of controlling microfilaments in cells.

The Silent Revolution in Europe: Intergenerational Change in Post-Industrial Societies

Abstract: A transformation of basic political priorities may be taking place in Western Europe. I hypothesize: (1) that people have a variety of needs which are given high or low priority according to their degree of fulfillment: people act on behalf of their most important unsatisfied need, giving relatively little attention to needs already satisfied—except that (2) people tend to retain the value priorities adopted in their formative years throughout adult life. In contemporary Western Europe, needs for physical safety and economic security are relatively well satisfied for an unprecedentedly large share of the population. Younger, more affluent groups have been formed entirely under these conditions, and seem relatively likely to give top priority to fulfillment of needs which remain secondary to the older and less affluent majority of the population. Needs for belonging and intellectual and esthetic self-fulfillment (characterized as “post-bourgeois” values) may take top priorities among the former group. Survey data from six countries indicate that the value priorities of the more affluent postwar group do contrast with those of groups raised under conditions of lesser economic and physical security. National patterns of value priorities correspond to the given nation's economic history, moreover, suggesting that the age-group differences reflect the persistence of preadult experiences, rather than life cycle effects. The distinctive value priorities imply distinctive political behavior—being empirically linked with preferences for specific political issues and political parties in a predictable fashion. If the respective age cohorts retain their present value priorities, we would expect long-term shifts in the political goals and patterns of political partisanship prevailing in these societies.

Approaches to Sudden Death from Coronary Heart Disease

Abstract: Sudden cardiac death (SCD) continues unabated. Coronary care units, while effective in lowering hospital mortality, cannot significantly reduce SCD which occurs primarily outside the hospital and accounts for the majority of deaths from coronary heart disease (CHD). In view of the frequent precipitous nature of SCD, only a program which identifies and protects the victim prior to the event can hope to be successful in preventing the majority of SCD. Since it is likely that SCD is due to an arrhythmia, drug prophylaxis might prove effective. In view of the toxicity of currently available agents, it is mandatory to preselect a population at highest risk before embarking on a drug trial. Ventricular premature beats (VPB) may identify subjects susceptible to SCD. Epidemiologic and physiologic information on VPB is reviewed, and proposals are made for studies designed to establish the usefulness of VPB as a risk factor for SCD.

Impact of population growth

Abstract: There have been some questionable assertions relating to population growth. The most serious of these is the notion that the size and growth rate of the U.S. population are only minor contributors to this countrys adverse impact on local and global environment. The discussion in this article centers around 5 theorems which demonstrate the following: 1) population growth causes a disproportionate negative impact on the environment 2) the control of population is necessary but not sufficient means of seeing us through the whole crisis of environmental deterioration 3) population density is a poor measure of population pressure 4) environment as a term must be broadly construed to include physical environment of urban ghettos as well as the human behavioral environment and 5) theoratical solutions to out problems are not operational and some times are not solutions. The paper concludes that population control the redirection of technology the transition from open to closed resouce cycles the equitable distribution of opportunity and the ingredients of prosperity must all be accomplished if there is to be a future worth living.

The hypothesis of mobility transition.

Abstract: The principle of the spatial diffusion of innovations to the laws of migration and specifically to the assertion that "unless severe checks are imposed both volume and rate of migration tend to increase with time" are applied. Results are set within the same temporal structure that has been developed for the demographic transition and in accordance with the geographic axiom coherent spatial entities are identified. The hypothesis of the mobility transition is: there are definite and patterned regularities in the growth of and dischare of great quantities of chemical kinetic and nuclear energy. The temporal sequence of a 5-stage mobility transition is presented in outline form. A 5-stage vital transition is placed in parallel position to indicate contemporaneity (and probably interpendence) between adjacent segments of the 2 columns even though no suggestion of absolute date or duration can be offered. The highly schematic model shows the mobility and the vital transition as a kind of outward spatial diffiusion of successively more advanced forms of human activity. The verbal (or temporal) and the diagrammatic (or spatial) aspects of the model are complementary. The progression of 5 phases of spatial mobility is indicated for an ideal nation (one that averages out the demographic history of the entire universe of currently advanced countries) in which the potential migrant enjoys a full range of options. In addition the magnitude of movement that might have occurred but was obviated by the recent availability of superior transport and communications is hypothesized in 2 figures. During phase 1 genuine migration i.e. movement across appreciable physical and social intervals was uncommon. A sharp rise in urban-to-urban migration and in aggregate circulation during phases II and III with a subsequent deceleration or leveling off is implied by the available information. The time profile for migration obviated by improved means for circulating people is hypothetical. Eventually the empirical evidence may confirm the speculation that during phase III and later the broadening out of the circulators daily cruising range offered so many new social and economic options that many potential switches in residence were aborted. The migratory and circulatory currents of phases III and IV are more complex than those of phase II which are simply 1 great rural stampede funneled into several paths. In phase IV still more complex mobility conditions emerge. The flight from the countryside has slowed to a trickle and whatever movement persists is almost solely toward the city.

A single index of mortality and morbidity.

Abstract: A CONTINUING interest of the National Center for Health Statistics is the development and evaluation of new health indices suited to diverse specific purposes. No one index can reflect all aspects of health, but there is considerable agreement that an index which measures some aspects of nonfatal illness as well as mortality would be desirable. A rationale for using both mortality and disability rates as the components of such an index has already been published (1). One technique for combining mortality and morbidity rates into a single index was devised and reported by Chiang in conjunction with his development of mathematical models of illness frequency, illness duration, and mortality (2). Moriyama has discussed criteria desired in an index of health and, in view of these, reviewed some approaches proposed in the literature (3). A deseription and evaluation of disability concepts and measures being considered as the basis of the morbidity component of a mortality-morbidity index appeared in a recent report (4). Another technique for merging death rates with illness rates, and some illustrative results are described in this paper. A primary objective of these studies is development of a summary measure which reflects changes over time in the health status of the nation's population. Too little is known as yet about these techniques, and in some cases about the data they employ, to permit thorough evaluation of alternative approaches to the construction of such indices. Results of studies of such measures are presented as they become available by the Center to stimulate consideration of the issues and, possibly, to stimulate further studies by those in a position to conduct related research. Some preliminary index values based upon the techniques presented in this paper have already been published for fiscal years 1958-66 (5). The estimates in this article are also preliminary. Although they relate to only a single year, they provide previously unpublished information on whites and other persons and on sex differences. These estimates are considered more accurate than earlier computations of such values.

The Methods and Materials of Demography

Abstract: Presents an exposition of the methods used by technicians and research workers in dealing with demographic data. This book is concerned with the ways data on population are gathered, classified, and treated to produce tabulations and various summarizing measures that reveal the significant aspects of the composition and dynamics of populations.

Response of cultured macrophages to Mycobacterium tuberculosis, with observations on fusion of lysosomes with phagosomes.

Abstract: The cytological response to the ingestion of tubercle bacilli by cultured mouse peritoneal macrophages has been studied by electron microscopy. Methods included a quantitative assessment based on systematic surveying of cell profiles, and of phagosomes and their contained bacteria, encountered in thin sections; classification of the sectioned bacteria into visibly damaged and apparently intact categories; prelabeling of dense granules (secondary lysosomes) with ferritin as an aid to identifying the occurrence and frequency of phagosome-lysosome fusion; and monitoring of bacterial growth and viability by light microscopy and cultural counts. The situations studied were as follows: progressive infection with the multiplying virulent strain H37Rv; ingestion of the same strain previously inactivated by gamma radiation; infection with an attenuated strain (BCG); and a stabilized virulent infection induced by the surfactant Macrocyclon. In the bacterial suspensions used routinely for inoculation, about half the bacilli were viable, matching closely the proportions of intact and damaged organisms identified with the electron microscope. In the inoculated macrophages, some phagosomes containing intact bacilli and others containing damaged bacilli were always to be found; but the proportion of organisms scored as damaged increased, and that of intact organisms decreased, in situations where the population as a whole had been rendered nonviable before inoculation, or where they became so intracellularly as in the late stages of a BCG infection. Evidence of fusion of ferritin-marked lysosomes with some bacterium-containing phagosomes was obtained in all experiments, but a significant difference was regularly observed according to whether the bacilli were damaged or intact. Virtually all phagosomes containing damaged bacilli showed signs of fusion; but when many phagosomes were present containing apparently intact organisms (as with actively multiplying strain H37Rv or with this strain held at a steady level of viability by Macrocyclon, and also with strain BCG at an early stage of that infection), signs of fusion of lysosomes with these phagosomes were infrequent. From these findings it is inferred that intracellular survival of M. tuberculosis in cultured macrophages is associated with a tendency to nonfusion of dense granules with the phagosome, thus avoiding direct exposure of the bacilli to the contents of these organelles. It is suggested, further, that fusion of dense granules with the phagosome, leading to digestion, is determined by recognition of the bacillus as nonviable. The possibility is discussed that the cytological response to different mycobacterial infections may reflect differences of a basic nature between facultative and obligate intracellular parasitism.

The Discovery of the Asylum: Social Order and Disorder in the New Republic

Abstract: This text poses the question why Americans, beginning in the 1820s and 1830s, simultaneously and confidently constructed prisons, insane asylums, reformatories and almshouses to confine and treat their deviant and dependent population. In his introduction, Rothman examines the reasons that this question is now one of the core concerns of European and American social history; analyzes the many imaginative answers that have been proposed; and evaluates their strengths and weaknesses. The volume explores American attitudes toward crime, madness, poverty and delinquency, and demonstrates how these ideas shaped both the design and the routine of the new institutions. There were no available models for the asylum; it had to be imagined and fabricated with few guiding precedents. The results revolutionized the treatment of the deviant and dependent and have profoundly affected the structure of modern society.

The somatic generation of immune recognition.

Abstract: Antibody specificity is determined by structural v-genes that code for the amino acid sequences of the variable regions of antibody polypeptide chains. The present hypothesis proposes that the germ-cells of an animal carry a set of v-genes determining the combining sites of antibodies directed against a complete set of a certain class of histocompatibility antigens of the species to which this animal belongs. The evolutionary development of this set of v-genes in phylogeny is traced back to the requirements for cell to cell recognition in all metazoa. The hypothesis leads to a distinction between two populations of antigen-sensitive cells. One population consists of cells forming antibodies against foreign antigens; these lymphocytes have arisen as mutants in clones descending from lymphocytic stem cells which expressed v-genes belonging to the subset (subset S) coding for antibody against histocompatibility antigens that the individual happens to possess. The other population consists of allograft rejecting lymphocytes that express v-genes of the remaining subset (subset A) coding for antibody against histocompatibility antigens of the species that the individual does not possess. The primary lymphoid organs are viewed as mutant-breeding organs. In these organs (e. g. in the thymus), the proliferation of lymphocytes expressing the v-genes of subset S and the subsequent suppression of the cells of these “forbidden” clones, leads to the selection of mutant cells expressing v-genes that have been modified by spontaneous random somatic mutation. This process generates self-tolerance as well as a diverse population of antigen-sensitive cells that reflects antibody diversity. The proliferation in the primary lymphoid organs of lymphocytes expressing v-genes of subset A generates the antigen-sensitive cell population that is responsible for allo-aggression. The theory explains how a functional immune system can develop through a selection pressure exerted by self-antigens, starting during a period in early ontogeny that precedes clonal selection by foreign antigens. The hypothesis provides explanations for the variability of the N-terminal regions of antibody polypeptide chains, for the dominant genetic control of specific immune responsiveness by histocompatibility alleles, for the relative preponderance of antigen-sensitive cells directed against allogeneic histocompatibility antigens, for antibody-idiotypes, for allelic exclusion, for the precommitment of any given antigen-sensitive lymphocyte to form antibodies of only one molecular species and for the cellular dynamics in the primary lymphoid tissues.

Mammalian Motor Units: Physiological-Histochemical Correlation in Three Types in Cat Gastrocnemius

Abstract: The correlation among a variety of physiological properties and the histochemical characteristics of muscle fibers belonging to single motor units in a mixed mammalian muscle is directly demonstrated. The population of motor units making up the cat gastrocnemius was classified into three nonoverlapping groups on the basis of a combination of physiological parameters. The muscle fibers belonging to motor units of each physiological type exhibited a distinctive histochemical profile, such that the three basic histochemical "fiber types" exactly matched the three physiologically defined groups. Within each individual motor unit, the muscle fibers were histochemically uniform.

Counterintuitive behavior of social systems

Abstract: This paper addresses several issues of broad concern in the United States: population trends; the quality of urban life; national policy for urban growth; and the unexpected, ineffective, or detrimental results often generated by government programs in these areas. The author does attempt to indicate how multiloop feed-back systems (to which our social systems belong) mislead us because our intuition and judgement have been formed to expect behavior different from that actually possessed by such systems. At times programs cause exactly the reverse of desired results. It is now possible to explain how such contrary results can happen. There are fundamental reasons why people misjudge the behavior of social systems. There are orderly processes at work that frequently lead people to wrong decisions when faced with complex and highly interacting systems. Until we come to a much better understanding of social systems, we should expect that attempts to develop corrective programs will continue to disappoint us.

Territory and Breeding Density in the Great Tit, Parus Major L.

Abstract: This paper describes an investigation into whether or not spring territorial behavior was limiting the breeding density of a population of Great Tits on Wytham Estate, near Oxford. The analysis of distances between neighboring nests showed that nest sites were more spaced out than would be expected from a random distribution; this indicated that interactions between the birds produced at least a local density—limiting effect. In 2 successive years, established territorial pairs were removed from a stable spring population in mixed woodland. The removed birds were rapidly replaced by new pairs. These newcomers were largely first—year birds; they came from territories in the hedgerows that surrounded the wood; the vacated hedgerow territories were not refilled. The hedgerows were found to be suboptimal in terms of reproductive success. Thus territory limited the breeding density in the optimal habitat. Song advertisement is probably important in maintaining territorial boundaries, hedgerow birds being able to detect the presence of individual woodland territory holders by recognizing their songs. The effect of winter food supply on the population was investigated by supplying excess food throughout one winter. This artificial food supplement appeared to have no effect on the number of Great Tits breeding in the wood, but did produce an increase in the case of a related species, the Blue Tit. The results show that territorial behavior influences density; this is not considered to be a function of territory in the evolutionary sense, but rather a consequence of spacing out that has been selected for in some other context. A possible advantage of spacing out in the Great Tit is as a defense against predators. Territory size varies considerably from year to year. These variations are the result of interactions between the birds themselves, rather than direct adjustments of territory size to fluctuations in some environmental resource. Even though territory has an effect on the number of birds breeding in the wood,it is not an important density—dependent factor acting to regulate the population.

Variation in Sensitivity to Heat Shock during the Cell-cycle of Chinese Hamster Cells in Vitro

Abstract: SummaryWhen asynchronous cells were exposed for 4–100 min to heat shocks of 43·5–46·5°c, a sigmoidal relationship between survival and duration of heat treatment was observed. From an Arrhenius plot, an activation energy of 140 800 cal/mole was calculated, which is similar to that reported for the heat denaturation of several proteins.Heating of synchronous cells, obtained by the selective removal of mitotic cells from an asynchronous population, revealed that the mitotic and S phases were the most sensitive, primarily indicated by the smaller shoulders on the survival curves compared with the curve for cells heated in the resistant G1 phase. The mitotic cells failed to complete cytokinesis and appeared in the next division as tetraploid cells. For heat treatments which reduced the survival to only 50 per cent, the mitotic delay was about 11 hours (regardless of the phase heated). These results for heat contrast sharply with results for x-irradiation.

The structure of the caudate nucleus of the cat: light and electron microscopy.

Abstract: The caudate nucleus of the cat appears to be homogeneous when examined with the light or electron microscope, except for a layer beneath the ependyma where there is a high concentration of glial cells and few neurons. In sections of brains stained with thionin the nerve cells in the caudate nucleus fall into three size groups: less than 8 $\mu m$ , 9 to 18 $\mu m$ , greater than 20 $\mu m$ . Examination of material impregnated with the Golgi technique shows that there are six cell types (one small, four medium and one large), and these are distinguishable on the basis of the size of the cell somata and the appearance and arrangement of their dendrites. One type of medium cell with many dendritic spines forms over 95% of the cell population. The large and one medium cell type are tentatively identified as the source of the efferent fibres of the nucleus. These efferent fibres and the axons of the remaining medium cell types have collateral branches. Three groups of possible afferent fibres have been identified, and these and the collateral branches of the intrinsic neurons form a dense plexus whose individual fibres cross dendrites rather than lie parallel to them. Six cell types may also be distinguished with the electron microscope, and four of these can be correlated directly with those seen in Golgi impregnated material. Several kinds of dendrites are present, the commonest having numerous spines. Fewer spines are present on other varieties of dendrite, and those dendrites which are varicose have no spines. Numerous fine, nonmyelinated axons are present.

Human tooth wear, tooth function and cultural variability.

Abstract: Among primitive peoples dental attrition appears to be a natural phenomenon. Often the degrees and kinds of tooth wear vary from population to population. This variability is possibly related to certain material aspects of culture such as diet, food preparation techniques and tool usage. In order to learn more about these relationships, extensive cross cultural comparisons must be made. This paper reports on a study of dental attrition among skeletal remains of North American Indians from three areas: California, the Southwest and the Valley of Mexico. A method of comparing worn teeth of these populations was devised so several characteristics of the teeth and supporting bone could be examined by population. This study showed significant differences in type and degree of wear among the three groups as well as differences between sexes within each population. A positive correlation between tooth wear and cultural factors was found. Dietary specialization and division of labor appear to be responsible for the degree and type of wear found in this sample. Further studies of this type are planned to expand the sample size and, if the new data support these correlations, valuable information about human–environmental relationships can be gained.

Occurrence of malignancy in immunodeficiency diseases. A literature review.

Abstract: The incidence of malignancy in patients with primary immunodeficiencies is roughly 10,000 times that of the general age-matched population. It is apparent from this review of the literature that each type of immunodeficiency has a distinctive constellation of malignancies associated with it. In light of recent studies demonstrating both immunologically aggressive lymphocytes and the presence of blocking antibodies in the blood of neuroblastoma patients, a major role for immunity in ontogenesis seems almost certain. The role of such antibodies in the formation of lymphoid malignancies, such as occur so frequently in patients with immunologic deficiencies who often do not produce antibodies of any type well, remains unclear.