Showing papers on "Pore water pressure published in 2011"

Hydrogeology and Mechanics of Subduction Zone Forearcs: Fluid Flow and Pore Pressure

Abstract: At subduction zones, fluid flow, pore pressure, and tectonic processes are tightly interconnected. Excess pore pressure is driven by tectonic loading and fluids released by mineral dehydration, and it has profound effects on fault and earthquake mechanics through its control on effective stress. The egress of these overpressured fluids, which is in part governed by the presence of permeable fault zones, is a primary mechanism of volatile and solute transport to the oceans. Recent field measurements, new constraints gained from laboratory studies, and numerical modeling efforts have led to a greatly improved understanding of these coupled processes. Here, we summarize the current state of knowledge of fluid flow and pore pressure in subduction forearcs, and focus on recent advances that have quantified permeability architecture, fluxes, the nature and timing of transience, and pressure distribution, thus providing new insights into the connections between fluid, metamorphic, mechanical, and fault slip proc...

Capillary heterogeneity trapping of CO2 in a sandstone rock at reservoir conditions

Abstract: [1] The storage of CO2 in deep subsurface porous rocks is being developed worldwide for the mitigation of emission from large industrial sources such as power plants and steel manufacturing A main concern of this technology is in ensuring that the upwardly buoyant CO2 does not migrate to the surface Simulation studies suggest that substantial amounts of CO2 can be trapped within permeable sections of a reservoir by capillary forces and intra-reservoir heterogenities, but there is little experimental observation of these phenomena We report the results of CO2 core flooding experiments at high pressure and temperature performed to investigate the impact of natural capillary heterogeneity in a sandstone rock on CO2 saturation buildup and trapping CO2 and water were injected through a Mt Simon sandstone core at 9 MPa pore pressure and 50°C The core had two regions of distinct capillarity: An upstream 10 cm long region of the core consisted of a relatively high permeability and homogenous sand A downstream 3 cm long region of the core consisted of a low permeability region characterized by significant cross-bedding and a high capillary entry pressure for CO2 During a drainage process of CO2 displacing water, CO2 builds up upstream of the capillary barrier Once in place, CO2 on the upstream side of the barrier cannot be displaced during 100% water flooding leading to trapped saturations that are a factor 2–5 times higher than what would be expected from residual trapping alone

Stress drop variations of induced earthquakes at the Basel geothermal site

Abstract: [1] We determine stress drops from P-wave spectra of about 1000 earthquakes induced by hydraulic stimulation in crystalline rock for a deep heat mining project in Basel, Switzerland We observe an increase in stress drop by about a factor of five with radial distance from 10 m to 300 m, which suggests that stress drop correlates with pore pressure perturbations due to the injection We test this hypothesis by calculating the injection-related pore pressure perturbation based on a simple linear pore pressure diffusion model and find a good correlation of the expected pore pressure perturbation with the estimated stress drops

Elevated gas hydrate saturation within silt and silty clay sediments in the Shenhu area, South China Sea

Abstract: Gas hydrate saturations were estimated using five different methods in silt and silty clay foraminiferous sediments from drill hole SH2 in the South China Sea. Gas hydrate saturations derived from observed pore water chloride values in core samples range from 10 to 45% of the pore space at 190-221 m below seafloor (mbsf). Gas hydrate saturations estimated from resistivity (R-t) using wireline logging results are similar and range from 10 to 40.5% in the pore space. Gas hydrate saturations were also estimated by P wave velocity obtained during wireline logging by using a simplified three-phase equation (STPE) and effective medium theory (EMT) models. Gas hydrate saturations obtained from the STPE velocity model (41.0% maximum) are slightly higher than those calculated with the EMT velocity model (38.5% maximum). Methane analysis from a 69 cm long depressurized core from the hydrate-bearing sediment zone indicates that gas hydrate saturation is about 27.08% of the pore space at 197.5 mbsf. Results from the five methods show similar values and nearly identical trends in gas hydrate saturations above the base of the gas hydrate stability zone at depths of 190 to 221 mbsf. Gas hydrate occurs within units of clayey slit and silt containing abundant calcareous nannofossils and foraminifer, which increase the porosities of the fine-grained sediments and provide space for enhanced gas hydrate formation. In addition, gas chimneys, faults, and fractures identified from three-dimensional (3-D) and high-resolution two-dimensional (2-D) seismic data provide pathways for fluids migrating into the gas hydrate stability zone which transport methane for the formation of gas hydrate. Sedimentation and local canyon migration may contribute to higher gas hydrate saturations near the base of the stability zone.

Pingos of the Tuktoyaktuk Peninsula Area, Northwest Territories

Abstract: Most pingos have grown in residual ponds left behind by rapid lake drainage through erosion of ice-wedge polygon systems. The field studies (1969-78) have involved precise levelling of numerous bench marks, extensive drilling, detailed temperature measurements, installation of water pressure transducers below permafrost and water (ice) quality, soil, and many other analyses. Precise surveys have been carried out on 17 pingos for periods ranging from 3 to 9 years. The field results show that permafrost aggradation in saturated lake bottom sediments creates the high pore water pressures necessary for pingo growth. The subpermafrost water pressures frequently approach that of the total litho-static pressure of permafrost surrounding a pingo. The water pressure is often great enough to lift a pingo and intrude a sub-pingo water lens beneath it. The basal diameter of a pingo is established in early youth after which time the pingo tends to grow higher, rather than both higher and wider. The shutoff direction of freezing is from periphery to center. When growing pingos have both through going taliks and also permeable sediments at depth, water may be expelled downwards by pore water expulsion from freezing and consolidation from self loading on saturated sediments. Pingos can rupture from bursting of the sub-pingo water lens. Otherwise, pingo failure is at the top and periphery. Hydraulic fracturing is probably important in some pingo failures. Water loss from sub-pingo water lenses causes subsidence with the subsidence pattern being the mirror image of the growth pattern; i.e. greatest subsidence at the top. Small peripheral bulges may result from subsidence. Old pingos collapse from exposure of the ice core to melting by overburden rupture, by mass wasting, and by permafrost creep of the sides.

Laboratory observations of permeability enhancement by fluid pressure oscillation of in situ fractured rock

Abstract: Received 5 June 2010; revised 5 November 2010; accepted 22 December 2010; published 24 February 2011. [1] We report on laboratory experiments designed to investigate the influence of pore pressure oscillations on the effective permeability of fractured rock. Berea sandstone samples were fractured in situ under triaxial stresses of tens of megapascals, and deionized water was forced through the incipient fracture under conditions of steady and oscillating pore pressure. We find that short‐term pore pressure oscillations induce long‐term transient increases in effective permeability of the fractured samples. The magnitude of the effective permeability enhancements scales with the amplitude of pore pressure oscillations, and changes persist well after the stress perturbation. The maximum value of effective permeability enhancement is 5 × 10 −16 m 2 with a background permeability of 1 × 10 −15 m 2 ; that is, the maximum enhanced permeability is 1.5 × 10 −15 m 2 . We evaluate poroelastic effects and show that hydraulic storage release does not explain our observations. Effective permeability recovery following dynamic oscillations occurs as the inverse square root of time. The recovery indicates that a reversible mechanism, such as clogging/unclogging of fractures, as opposed to an irreversible one, like microfracturing, is responsible for the transient effective permeability increase. Our work suggests the feasibility of dynamically controlling the effective permeability of fractured systems. The result has consequences for models of earthquake triggering and permeability enhancement in fault zones due to dynamic shaking from near and distant earthquakes.

Salinity dependence of spectral induced polarization in sands and sandstones

Abstract: SUMMARY In electrolyte-saturated sands, the reversible storage of electrical charges is responsible for a phase lag between the current (injected and retrieved by two current electrodes) and the electrical field recorded by two voltage electrodes. This phenomenon is called ‘spectral induced polarization’ in geophysics and can potentially be used to monitor salt tracer tests in shallow aquifers to infer their permeability and dispersivity tensors. We demonstrate analytically that the polarization of the inner part of the electrical triple layer coating the surface of the grains (named the Stern layer in electrochemistry) is consistent with available data. We also perform new experiments using silica sands saturated by NaCl and CaCl2 pore water solutions. The salinity dependence of quadrature conductivity can be modelled using an analytical solution of the triple layer model, which offers a simple way to interpret laboratory and field data. This analytical solution depends on the total site density of the mineral surface, the pH value and the sorption coefficient of the cation in the Stern layer. This model shows that both the specific surface conductivity of the Stern layer and the quadrature conductivity of the porous material depend on the conductivity of the pore water. The quadrature conductivity is becoming independent of the salinity above 1 S m−1. The parameters entering the analytical model are consistent with independent estimates from titration data and zeta potential measurements, which are two classical methods to characterize the electrical triple layer at the pore water mineral interface.

Geomechanical response to seasonal gas storage in depleted reservoirs: A case study in the Po River basin, Italy

Abstract: [1] Underground gas storage (UGS) in depleted hydrocarbon reservoirs is a strategic practice to cope with the growing energy demand and occurs in many places in Europe and North America. In response to summer gas injection and winter gas withdrawal the reservoir expands and contracts essentially elastically as a major consequence of the fluid (gas and water) pore pressure fluctuations. Depending on a number of factors, including the reservoir burial depth, the difference between the largest and the smallest gas pore pressure, and the geomechanical properties of the injected formation and the overburden, the porous medium overlying the reservoir is subject to three-dimensional deformation with the related cyclic motion of the land surface being both vertical and horizontal. We present a methodology to evaluate the environmental impact of underground gas storage and sequestration from the geomechanical perspective, particularly in relation to the ground surface displacements. Long-term records of injected and removed gas volume and fluid pore pressure in the “Lombardia” gas field, northern Italy, are available together with multiyear detection of vertical and horizontal west-east displacement of the land surface above the reservoir by an advanced permanent scatterer interferometric synthetic aperture radar (PSInSAR) analysis. These data have been used to calibrate a 3-D fluid-dynamic model and develop a 3-D transversally isotropic geomechanical model. The latter has been successfully implemented and used to reproduce the vertical and horizontal cyclic displacements, on the range of 8–10 mm and 6–8 mm, respectively, measured between 2003 and 2007 above the reservoir where a UGS program has been underway by Stogit-Eni S.p.A. since 1986 following a 5 year field production life. Because of the great economical interest to increase the working gas volume as much as possible, the model addresses two UGS scenarios where the gas pore overpressure is pushed from the current 103%pi, where pi is the gas pore pressure prior to the field development, to 107%pi and 120%pi. Results of both scenarios show that there is a negligible impact on the ground surface, with deformation gradients that remain well below the most restrictive admissible limits for the civil structures and infrastructures.

On the capillary stress tensor in wet granular materials

Abstract: This paper presents a micromechanical study of unsaturated granular media in the pendular regime, based upon numerical experiments using the discrete element method, compared to a microstructural elastoplastic model. Water effects are taken into account by adding capillary menisci at contacts and their consequences in terms of force and water volume are studied. Simulations of triaxial compression tests are used to investigate both macro and micro-effects of a partial saturation. The results provided by the two methods appear to be in good agreement, reproducing the major trends of a partially saturated granular assembly, such as the increase in the shear strength and the hardening with suction. Moreover, a capillary stress tensor is exhibited from capillary forces by using homogenisation techniques. Both macroscopic and microscopic considerations emphasize an induced anisotropy of the capillary stress tensor in relation with the pore fluid distribution inside the material. In so far as the tensorial nature of this fluid fabric implies shear effects on the solid phase associated with suction, a comparison has been made with the standard equivalent pore pressure assumption. It is shown that water effects induce microstrural phenomena that cannot be considered at the macro level, particularly when dealing with material history. Thus, the study points out that unsaturated soil stress definitions should include, besides the macroscopic stresses such as the total stress, the microscopic interparticle stresses such as the ones resulting from capillary forces, in order to interpret more precisely the implications of the pore fluid on the mechanical behaviour of granular materials.

Flow and sediment transport induced by a plunging solitary wave

Abstract: [1] Two parallel experiments involving the evolution and runup of plunging solitary waves on a sloping bed were conducted: (1) a rigid-bed experiment, allowing direct (hot film) measurements of bed shear stresses and (2) a sediment-bed experiment, allowing for the measurement of pore water pressures and for observation of the morphological changes. The two experimental conditions were kept as similar as possible. The experiments showed that the complete sequence of the plunging solitary wave involves the following processes: shoaling and wave breaking; runup; rundown and hydraulic jump; and trailing wave. The bed shear stress measurements showed that the mean bed shear stress increases tremendously (with respect to that in the approaching wave boundary layer), by as much as a factor of 8, in the runup and rundown stages, and that the RMS value of the fluctuating component of the bed shear stress is also affected, by as much as a factor of 2, in the runup and hydraulic jump stages. The pore water pressure measurements showed that the sediment at (or near) the surface of the bed experiences upward directed pressure gradient forces during the down-rush phase. The magnitude of this force can reach values as much as approximately 30% of the submerged weight of the sediment. The experiments further showed that the sediment transport occurs in the sheet flow regime for a substantial portion of the beach covering the area where the entire sequence of the wave breaking takes place. The bed morphology is explained qualitatively in terms of the measured bed shear stress and the pressure gradient forces.

Experimental Validation of a Mathematical Model For Seabed Liquefaction Under Waves

Abstract: This paper summarizes the results of an experimental study directed towards the validation of a mathematical model for the buildup of pore water pressure and resulting liquefaction of marine soils under progressive waves. Experiments were conducted under controlled conditions with silt (d50 D 00070 mm) in a wave flume with a soil pit. Waves with wave heights in the range of 7.7‐18 cm, 55-cm water depth and 1.6-s wave period enabled us to study both the liquefaction and no-liquefaction regime pore water pressure buildup. The experimental data were used to validate the model. A numerical example is also included in the paper to demonstrate the implementation of the model for real-life scenarios.

Water-table height and microtopography control biogeochemical cycling in an Arctic coastal tundra ecosystem

Abstract: . Drained thaw lake basins (DTLB's) are the dominant land form of the Arctic Coastal Plain in northern Alaska. The presence of continuous permafrost prevents drainage and so water tables generally remain close to the soil surface, creating saturated, suboxic soil conditions. However, ice wedge polygons produce microtopographic variation in these landscapes, with raised areas such as polygon rims creating more oxic microenvironments. The peat soils in this ecosystem store large amounts of organic carbon which is vulnerable to loss as arctic regions continue to rapidly warm, and so there is great motivation to understand the controls over microbial activity in these complex landscapes. Here we report the effects of experimental flooding, along with seasonal and spatial variation in soil chemistry and microbial activity in a DTLB. The flooding treatment generally mirrored the effects of natural landscape variation in water-table height due to microtopography. The flooded portion of the basin had lower dissolved oxygen, lower oxidation-reduction potential (ORP) and higher pH, as did lower elevation areas throughout the entire basin. Similarly, soil pore water concentrations of organic carbon and aromatic compounds were higher in flooded and low elevation areas. Dissolved ferric iron (Fe(III)) concentrations were higher in low elevation areas and responded to the flooding treatment in low areas, only. The high concentrations of soluble Fe(III) in soil pore water were explained by the presence of siderophores, which were much more concentrated in low elevation areas. All the aforementioned variables were correlated, showing that Fe(III) is solubilized in response to anoxic conditions. Dissolved carbon dioxide (CO2) and methane (CH4) concentrations were higher in low elevation areas, but showed only subtle and/or seasonally dependent effects of flooding. In anaerobic laboratory incubations, more CH4 was produced by soils from low and flooded areas, whereas anaerobic CO2 production only responded to flooding in high elevation areas. Seasonal changes in the oxidation state of solid phase Fe minerals showed that net Fe reduction occurred, especially in topographically low areas. The effects of Fe reduction were also seen in the topographic patterns of pH, as protons were consumed where this process was prevalent. This suite of results can all be attributed to the effect of water table on oxygen availability: flooded conditions promote anoxia, stimulating dissolution and reduction of Fe(III), and to some extent, methanogenesis. However, two lines of evidence indicated the inhibition of methanogenesis by alternative e- acceptors such as Fe(III) and humic substances: (1) ratios of CO2:CH4 evolved from anaerobic soil incubations and dissolved in soil pore water were high; (2) CH4 concentrations were negatively correlated with the oxidation state of the soluble Fe pool in both topographically high and low areas. A second set of results could be explained by increased soil temperature in the flooding treatment, which presumably arose from the increased thermal conductivity of the soil surface: higher N mineralization rates and dissolved P concentrations were observed in flooded areas. Overall, these results could have implications for C and nutrient cycling in high Arctic areas where warming and flooding are likely consequences of climate change.

In situ measurement of PCB pore water concentration profiles in activated carbon-amended sediment using passive samplers.

Abstract: Vertical pore water profiles of in situ PCBs were determined in a contaminated mudflat in San Francisco Bay, CA, 30 months after treatment using an activated carbon amendment in the upper layer of the sediment. Pore water concentrations were derived from concentrations of PCBs measured in two passive samplers; polyethylene (PE, 51 μm thick) and polyoxymethylene (POM, 17 μm thick) at different sediment depths. To calculate pore water concentrations from PCB contents in the passive samplers, an equilibrium approach and a first-order uptake model were applied, using five performance reference compounds to estimate pore water sampling rates. Vertical pore water profiles showed good agreement among the measurement and calculation methods with variations within a factor of 2, which seems reasonable for in situ measurements. The close agreements of pore water estimates for the two sampler materials (PE and POM) and the two methods used to translate uptake in samplers to pore water concentrations demonstrate the ...

Impact cratering in sandstone: The MEMIN pilot study on the effect of pore water

Abstract: – Planetary surfaces are subjected to meteorite bombardment and crater formation. Rocks forming these surfaces are often porous and contain fluids. To understand the role of both parameters on impact cratering, we conducted laboratory experiments with dry and wet sandstone blocks impacted by centimeter-sized steel spheres. We utilized a 40 m two-stage light-gas gun to achieve impact velocities of up to 5.4 km s−1. Cratering efficiency, ejection velocities, and spall volume are enhanced if the pore space of the sandstone is filled with water. In addition, the crater morphologies differ substantially from wet to dry targets, i.e., craters in wet targets are larger, but shallower. We report on the effects of pore water on the excavation flow field and the degree of target damage. We suggest that vaporization of water upon pressure release significantly contributes to the impact process.

A Laboratory Investigation on Thermal Properties of the Opalinus Claystone

Abstract: Some aspects of the thermal behavior of the Opalinus claystone are investigated through laboratory tests conducted on a new hollow cylinder triaxial apparatus specially designed for studying the thermo-hydro-mechanical behavior of very low permeable materials. Two hollow cylinder samples are first resaturated under isotropic stress state equal to the mean effective in situ one in order to minimize swelling and induced damage during the resaturation phase. Two drained heating–cooling cycles are performed on the first sample of Opalinus claystone. During the first cycle, a thermo-elasto-plastic response similar to that of plastic clays with low overconsolidation ratio is obtained. The thermal hardening of the sample is demonstrated by the quasi-reversible behavior of the sample during the second heating–cooling cycle. An undrained heating test performed on the second sample of Opalinus claystone induces an excess pore pressure in this sample. This induced pore pressure is attributed to the higher thermal expansion coefficient of pore water compared to that of the solid phase. It is shown that the excess pore pressure generated in the sample by undrained heating cannot be modeled by considering the free water thermal expansion coefficient. The thermal expansion coefficient of the Opalinus claystone water is back-analyzed from the experimental results which show a higher value than free water.

Lined Circular Tunnels in Elastic Transversely Anisotropic Rock at Depth

Abstract: Closed-form solutions for displacements and stresses of both the liner and the rock are presented for a deep circular tunnel excavated in transversely anisotropic rock above or below the water table subjected to static or seismic loading. The solutions are obtained with the assumption of elastic response of rock and liner, tied contact between rock and liner, impermeable liner, plane strain conditions along the tunnel axis and simultaneous excavation, and liner installation. The liner of a tunnel placed below the water table must support, in addition to the rock stresses, the full water pressure, while a tunnel located above the water table must support only the rock pressures. The solutions presented for static loading show, however, that displacements and stresses of the liner and rock are the same when the tunnel is placed above or below the water table as long as the total far-field stresses are the same. With rapid loading, e.g. seismic loading, excess pore pressures may be generated in saturated rock, which induce a different response than that of a tunnel excavated in dry rock. The analyses indicate that stresses and displacements are more uniform when excess pore pressures are produced, which seems to indicate that pore pressure generation tends to reduce non-uniform response in anisotropic rock.