Showing papers on "Poverty published in 1991"

Growth and redistribution components of changes in poverty measures : a decomposition with applications to Brazil and India in the 1980s

Abstract: This report shows how changes in poverty. measures can be decomposed into growth and redistribution components, and uses the methodology to study poverty in Brazil and India during the 1980s. Redistribution alleviated poverty in India, through growth was quantitatively more important. Improved distribution countervailed the adverse effect of monsoon failure in the late 1980s on rural poverty. However, worsening distribution in Brazil, associated with the macroeconomic shocks of the 1980s, mitigated poverty alleviation through the limited growth that occurred. India's higher poverty level than Brazil is accountable to India's lower mean consumption; Brazil's worse distribution mitigates the cross-country difference in poverty.

Drawing the Line: Alternative Poverty Measures and Their Implications for Public Policy

Abstract: The official U.S. poverty measures were adopted in the late 1960s and were based on data from the mid-1950s. This book argues for a reevaluation of the experts' consensus on where we draw the poverty line.

Effects of maternal employment and child-care arrangements on preschoolers' cognitive and behavioral outcomes: Evidence from the Children of the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth.

Abstract: The intersection of maternal employment and child care in the first 3 years of life was considered. The cognitive and behavioral effects of continuity, intensity, and timing of maternal employment in the 1st year had detrimental effects on the cognitive and behavioral development of all children regardless of gender or poverty status. Infancy-care arrangements affected cognitive and behavioral outcomes. Grandmother care was the most beneficial arrangement for cognitive development of children in poverty. Regarding behavioral development, mother care was most beneficial for boys, and baby-sitter care was most benefical for girls

Quantifying absolute poverty in the developing world

Abstract: We estimate that in 1985 about one in five persons in the developing world lived in poverty, judged by the standards of the poorest countries. This rises to one in three at a common, more generous, poverty line. The aggregate consumption short-fall of the poorest fifth is about one half of one percent of world consumption, while that of the poorest third is a further one percent. The shape of the distribution of consumption suggests that aggregate poverty would fall fairly rapidly if moderate growth in average consumption levels can be sustained, and the poor share at least proportionally in that growth. However, it would take only small adverse shifts in the world distribution of consumption to eliminate the gains to the poor from growth.

Poverty and Psychiatric Status: Longitudinal Evidence From the New Haven Epidemiologic Catchment Area Study

Abstract: • We assessed the effect of poverty on psychiatric status using two waves of New Haven (Conn) Epidemiologic Catchment Area data. Poverty was defined using federal poverty guidelines; psychiatric status was assessed by the Diagnostic Interview Schedule (DIS). When examining the course of healthy respondents at the first interview, respondents in poverty had a twofoldincreased risk (controlling for demographic factors) for an episode of at least one DIS/DSM-IIIAxis I psychiatric disorder. Rates of most specific psychiatric disorders were comparably higher for respondents meeting poverty criteria compared with those not in poverty, although these differences were not always statistically significant. The effects of poverty did not differ by sex, age, race, or history of psychiatric episodes.

Macroeconomic Performance and the Disadvantaged

Abstract: A LONG-STANDING, positive relationship between the economic wellbeing of the poor and the growth of the economy has changed. In the 1960s rapid economic growth and a relatively stable macroeconomy were associated with a 10 percentage point reduction in the proportion of people living below the official poverty line. Unstable macroeconomic conditions in the 1970s were associated with no progress against poverty, and the recession of the early 1980s brought substantial increases in poverty. Despite a sustained macroeconomic expansion from 1983 to 1989, however, poverty reduction was only moderate. The poverty rate in 1989, for example, was more than 1 percentage point higher in 1989 than in 1979. Thus, although the experience of the 1960s had suggested that a "rising tide raises all boats," persistent poverty in the 1980s indicates a weakening in the trickle-down mechanism. In this paper, we explore how disadvantaged individuals and families (those in the lower part of the income distribution) fared from the economic growth of the 1980s. We start by documenting the seeming ineffectiveness of macroeconomic growth to help the disadvantaged during this period. Movements in both the poverty rate and family income inequality indicate a break in the relationship between macroeconomic

Social Inequalities in Reforming State Socialism: Between Redistribution and Markets in China

Abstract: This article extends market transition theory to an analysis of inequality under the conditions of partial reform in China. Logit regression analysis indicates cadres (officials) have no greater odds than other households of being among the privileged or avoiding poverty. Entrepreneurs andformer team cadres, however, are advantaged. Despite the rise of a hybrid elite of entrepreneurs who are currently cadres that capitalizes on redistributive power to gain competitive advantage in the marketplace, increases in income inequality are modest. When market reform stimulates improved economic performance, the poor appear to benefit and experience comparable improvements in household income. As a result, there is only a slight increase in inequality, at least in the early stages of market reform. The empirical analysis is based on survey data collected in rural China in 1985.

Subgroup consistent poverty indices

Abstract: It seems desirable that the overall level of poverty should fall whenever poverty decreases within some subgroup of the population and is unchanged outside that group. Yet this simple and attractive property, which we call "subgroup consistency," is violated by many of the poverty indices suggested in recent years. This paper characterizes the class of subgroup consistent poverty iindices, and identifies the special features associated with this property. ONE OF THE MOST APPEALING PROPERTIES of poverty indices suggested in recent years is a simple consistency axiom which requires the overall level of poverty to fall if a subgroup of the population experiences a reduction in poverty, while poverty in the rest of the population remains unchanged.2 This property-which we term "subgroup consistency"-is desirable for a number of reasons. From a practical point of view, it is needed- to coordinate the effects of a decentralized strategy towards poverty alleviation. For a decentralized strategy typically in- volves a collection of activities targeted at specific subgroups or regions of the country. If the poverty indicator is not subgroup consistent, we may be faced with a situation in which each local effort achieves its objective of reducing poverty within its targeted group, and yet the level of poverty in the population as a whole increases. Subgroup consistency may therefore be viewed as an essential counterpart to a coherent poverty program. Subgroup consistency may also be regarded as a natural analogue of the monotonicity condition of Sen (1976), since monotonicity requires that aggre- gate poverty fall (or, at least, does not increase) if one person's poverty is reduced, ceteris paribus, while subgroup consistency demands that aggregate poverty fall if one subgroup's poverty is reduced, ceteris paribus. Furthermore, subgroup consistency is closely related to the property of "decomposability," which allows aggregate poverty to be expressed as a population-share weighted average of subgroup poverty levels, and hence facilitates the disaggregated- analysis of poverty by region or ethnic group of the type undertaken by Anand (1983). As it happens, the traditional poverty indices used by Anand and others -the headcount ratio (the fraction of the population that is poor) and the 1 Earlier versions of this paper were presented at a conference on Measurement and Modelling

Measuring changes in poverty : a methodological case study of Indonesia during an adjustment period

Abstract: Analysis of the effects of policy changes on the poor is often hindered by the difficulties inherent in measuring poverty and comparing levels of poverty before and after policy changes. This article outlines two techniques which can overcome many of these measurement problems: stochastic dominance conditions, which can facilitate a robust poverty ranking of distributions of living standards; and a decomposable poverty index, which allows measured changes in aggregate poverty to be disaggregated into their various components, such as the changes among population subgroups, and growth and redistributive components. These techniques can be applied to a wide range of indicators of economic well-being and poverty lines, and to assumptions about the poor. The approaches are illustrated using household survey data from Indonesia before and after external shocks and the subsequent structural adjustment program in the mid-1980s. The study finds that favorable initial conditions and pro-poor pattern of growth enabled Indonesia to maintain its momentum in poverty alleviation during the period.

Poverty, income inequality, and community crime rates

Abstract: This paper examines the relationship between crime rates and aggregate economic conditions for 57 small social areas. The principal analyses address a continuing controversy—are community crime rates associated with absolute poverty, relative poverty (i.e., income inequality), or both. Using victimization data from 57 small residential neighborhoods, the analyses examine the association between absolute and relative poverty and rates of violent crime and burglary. The findings indicate that absolute poverty is more strongly associated with neighborhood crime rates, although the relationship is conditional on the type of crime considered. The implications of the findings are discussed within a perspective of community social control.

Race, Family Structure, and Changing Poverty among American Children.

Abstract: The link between family structure and the changing economic well-being of American children since 1960 is examined using child records from the 1960, 1970, and 1980 Public Use Microdata Sample, andfrom the 1988 March Current Population Survey. We find that: (1) childpoverty rates would have been one-third less in 1988 iffamily structure had not changed since 1960; (2) changingfamily structure accountedfor nearly 50 percent of the increase in child poverty rates since 1980; (3) changing maternal employment patterns placed significant downward pressure on child poverty from 1960 to 1988, but could not prevent the overall rise in child poverty during the 1980s; (4) racial divergence in family structure since 1960 exacerbated the persistent black-white differences in children's economic status; (5) racial differences in parental work patterns since 1960 acted to reduce racial differences in child poverty; and (6) that changing family-size differentials between poor and nonpoor households exerted upward pressure on child poverty rates, especially among whites. Our results reinforce the view that child poverty and racial inequality cannot be separatedfrom the issue of changing family structure in America.

The Effects of International Remittances on Poverty, Inequality, and Development in Rural Egypt

Abstract: The study uses primary household data from a small area of rural Egyptin an innovative way to address such vital questions as who migrates, how remittances affect poverty and income inequality in the receiving villages, and how spending by returning migrants facilitates local development. The finding of this study that the rural poor, who actively participate ininternational migration, tend to invest their remittance earnings rather than spending on own or family consumption has broad implications of policy planning of countries that send many migrants abroad

Unintentional Injuries in Developing Countries: The Epidemiology of a Neglected Problem

Abstract: The WHO has a special office to coordinate global injury epidemiology and prevention; 2 world Bank policy and planning projects identified injuries as a priority area. The epidemiology of unintentional injuries based on the International Classification of Diseases, Ninth Revision, external causes codes: E800-E949, in developing countries is reviewed. Developing countries are those with an annual gross national product/capita of US$2500, based on 1986 figures form the World Bank. It includes countries generally with a population greater than 1 million. Only Sri Lanka, Thailand, Egypt, and Mauritius reported injury data to the WHO between 1977-87. There were no data available from the Caribbean and Central and South America. Information included here was obtained from a review of world literature on injuries indexed in 3 computer databases: Medlars, Biosis, and Excerpta Medica for the period 1966-90. 2500 reference titles and abstracts were reviewed. Those focusing on risk factors for and causes of injuries were selected for inclusion. Injury mortality is discussed in terms of its health impact and local population based studies. Injury morbidity discussion refers to the Gordon study on the rural Indian population and rates of injuries, urban studies in Brazil, Chile, Cuba, and Venezuela on causes of injury, and longterm disability from a Nepal study, and a Brazilian study on costs of injuries. The discussion of risk factors common to many injuries identifies age and sex particularly for the elderly, and alcohol or kola nuts as leading to higher accidents rates. Poverty, urban residence, and race are also suggested, but there is little evidence to support this. Specific attention is given to the following injuries: drowning, burns and fires, falls, poisoning, animal bites and wounds, machinery or tool or sharp objects, bicycles, eye, and disasters. Emergency medical services have been found to decrease trauma; it is suggested, that for those unable to afford mobile medical units, households and primary health care units need to be able to use simple treatments to control hemorrhage and prevent infection. Treatment and rehabilitation are also considered as well as future needs for research to identify the most significant injuries and risk factors from good quality data. Language: en

Women and AIDS in Zimbabwe: the making of an epidemic.

Abstract: The pattern of promiscuous sexual activity that places men and women in sub-Saharan Africa at risk of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection must be understood as a result of historically produced social conditions if such behavior is to be modified. In Zimbabwe patriarchy and colonialism appear to be the most significant social legacies responsible for the family structure and sexual behavior associated with HIV infection. The social context of acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) in Zimbabwe features a migrant labor system rapid urbanization constant war with high level of military mobilization landlessness poverty and the subordination of women. As deteriorating economic conditions have forced family separation sexual relationships outside of marriage have become the norm for African men in urban areas. In many cases town sexual liaisons come to supersede the rural wife leading to divorce or a reduction in remittances. For women in Zimbabwe sexual relationships comprise the only means of social and economic survival and the traditional subordination of African women places them at a disadvantage in terms of their ability to reduce their risk of HIV infection. Women who live apart or are divorced from their husbands may supplement their low incomes through prostitution. In most cases however it is the husband who introduce HIV infection into the family unit. Since social conditions have made a single lifetime sexual partner unrealistic AIDS prevention efforts should focus on condom-use promotion including empowering female prostitutes to dictate the conditions under which sex will occur.

Effective schools in developing countries

Abstract: This volume brings together eight case studies which describe a variety of initiatives to create more effective schools for children of poverty, especially in the third world. The initiatives were identified through a search that sought nominations from colleagues internationally. Countries include Brazil, Burundi, Colombia, Ghana, Nepal, Sri Lanka, Thailand, and the United States. Each initiative was developed independently to address unique challenges and situations. While one would not expect them to have identical features, it is interesting to note that they do share a set of common features with respect to provision of necessary inputs, existence of facilitating conditions and will. In fact, a major feature that the various initiatives have in common is that each is adapted to local circumstances: flexibility appears to be key to effectiveness. Taken as a group, the features of the approaches described in this volume might be viewed as a basis for considering the development of effective school strategies in other contexts.

Poverty Measurement and the Within-Household Distribution: Agenda for Action*

Abstract: Mainsteam poverty analysis is deficient because it ignores important within-household aspects. This point has been made by many, and stressed by feminists especially, yet mainstream poverty measurement practice remains unchanged. Why is this? What should we be doing? This paper examines anew the case for taking within-household factors into account in poverty measurement. The analysis reveals a number of unresolved issues including some problems with recent feminist arguments, but concludes that there is a good case for changing current practice. To demonstrate that this is feasible, four research projects are described. These are my agenda for action.

Has Children's Poverty Become More Persistent?.

Abstract: Iffood-stamp benefits are counted as income, there is little change in estimates ofpersistent povertyfor children between the late 1960s and early 1980s. However, the absence of change in persistent poverty masks a number of important changes in the demographic and statistical structure ofpersistent poverty. These changes include increasing inequality in the distribution of permanent socioeconomic position, greater dependence on social assistance, and the more familiar demographic changes such as increased numbers of single-parent families, higher educational attainments of parents, and decline in family size.

Letting girls learn : promising approaches in primary and secondary education

Abstract: This World Bank report reviewed changes in enrollment and gender equity the returns and constraints to female education and approaches for increasing female enrollment. The benefits of expanding womens education are probably greater than for men. The benefits include increased productivity and earnings healthier and more educated children less population growth reduced poverty and less population pressure. The obstacles are parents perception of fewer benefits for girls costs of schooling distance to schools separate facilities and female teachers and low economic returns. The nature and severity of constraints on girls schooling varies with stage of development. Severe constraints are usually located in poor agrarian societies with less supportive sociocultural traditions. Constrained countries are usually in South Asia and Africa. In both regions girls role and time spent in gathering fuel and water are considerable. Governments face budget constraints and middle income country constraints are more related to urban-rural differences and labor markets. Infrastructure tends not to be a problem. Middle Eastern middle income countries with sociocultural constraints lag the most behind in female enrollment. Policies can change attitudes lower costs provide financial incentives and child care for siblings and provide sustainable direct and opportunity costs. Studies reveal that governments can increase female enrollments by improving access quality and cultural suitability of schools as long as the direct and opportunity costs to families were not too severe. Projects need to address multiple constraints in innovative ways.

Marital transitions poverty and gender differences in mortality.

Abstract: Studies of the causes of marital status differentials in mortality have generally concluded that marriage serves to protect individuals from premature death. The analyses presented in this article extend this work by examining how recent marital transitions and associated levels of economic status affect mortality. With a health production model and micro-level data from the Panel Study of Income Dynamics [for the United States] sex-specific proportional hazard rate models of death are estimated as a function of recent marital transitions and poverty status as well as other sociodemographic characteristics. The results indicate that recent spells of poverty increased the hazard of dying for both men and women while recent marital status transitions altered the hazard of dying only for men. (EXCERPT)

Concepts of poverty and the poverty line

Abstract: . Various approaches adopted in developed economies to distinguishing between the poor and non-poor—to setting a poverty line—are reviewed. These include the budget standard, food ratio, ‘official’, subjective and relative poverty line methods, as well as the analysis of indicators of deprivation. There has been significant progress in recent years in the degree of sophistication involved, and a movement away from approaches with a quasi-absolute background. However, all the methods face formidable problems at conceptual and empirical levels, and no single approach is likely to dominate.

Teenage Childbearing and Social and Reproductive Disadvantage: The Evolution of Complex Questions and the Demise of Simple Answers.

Abstract: Research findings are clarified and oversimplification and distortion of new ideas are cautioned against by the practicing community or for the purpose of policy change. On the relationship between teenage childbearing and socioeconomic or reproductive disadvantage and the effects of health conditions. It had been commonly inferred that teen childbearing or the timing of 1st births is the cause of social problems such as educational dropouts poverty or infant mortality. The question is raised as to whether the underlying condition being the disadvantaged causes the problems. The fertility timing research has revealed that 1st-time African American mothers >23 years had higher neonatal mortality rates than most black or white teen mothers. The lowest rates were among the ages with the greatest frequency of 1st-time births. It was postulated that the physical health of African American women deteriorated quickly in young adulthood as a consequences of processes related to poverty and racism. Nationally findings indicated that mortality rates for black women are greater than for white women and the odds increase with increasing age. There were also racial differences in the prevalence of hypertension low-level lead exposure smoking over the reproductive years and low birth weight breastfeeding and well child care. Other findings suggest that black mothers in their 20s are more likely than black teen mothers to bear low birth weight babies to smoke or drink during pregnancy and are less likely to be breastfed or use well child health care in the 1st 6 months of life. This is the reverse of the white pattern. It is posited that poor women may fulfill their roles in consideration of deteriorating life conditions so that parents and grandparents as caretakers may still be healthy and energetic. The kinship patterns act as a buffer against economic and material hardship. Articles that challenged this perspective are noted an rebuttal on specific points in each article is provided. It is pointed out that denial of findings stifles open discussion and debate.

Comparing poverty rates internationally : lessons from recent studies in developed countries

Abstract: Studies comparing poverty in different countries frequently inform the evaluation of past policies and the formulation of future policies for reducing poverty. If the comparisons are to be a valid foundation for such assessments, in particular if they are to be a guide to the effective allocation of funds, the underlying concepts must be examined and defined. This article discusses four issues that are critical in this respect: the choice of poverty indicator, the determination of the poverty line, the unit of analysis, and the choice of equivalence scale. A selection of studies of poverty in countries that belong to the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development is used to show how the choices made in defining these indicators affect the findings about the extent and composition of the poor population. Although the context is different, the experience of rich countries may yield useful lessons for developing countries.

Economic Inequality and Poverty: International Perspectives: International Perspectives

Abstract: This collection focuses on the concepts and measurements of inequality, poverty, the concentration of wealth, and the implications of these issues for social policies. A special feature of this work is the international comparisons of the evidence on economic inequality.