Showing papers on "Poverty published in 2004"
TL;DR: This article showed that rural economic growth was far more important to national poverty reduction than urban economic growth, and that rural areas accounted for the bulk of the gains to the poor, though migration to urban areas helped.
1,273 citations
TL;DR: The links between poverty alleviation and biodiversity conservation are reviewed and a conceptual typology of these relationships is presented.
Abstract: It is widely accepted that biodiversity loss and poverty are linked problems and that conservation and poverty reduction should be tackled together. However, success with integrated strategies is elusive. There is sharp debate about the social impacts of conservation programs and the success of community-based approaches to conservation. Clear conceptual frameworks are needed if policies in these two areas are to be combined. We review the links between poverty alleviation and biodiversity conservation and present a conceptual typology of these relationships.
1,229 citations
TL;DR: The authors assesses the current state of evidence on the impact of trade policy reform on poverty in developing countries and argues that there is no simple generalizable conclusion about the relationship between trade liberalization and poverty, and the picture is much less negative than is often suggested.
Abstract: This paper assesses the current state of evidence on the impact of trade policy reform on poverty in developing countries. There is little empirical evidence addressing this question directly, but a lot of related evidence on specific aspects. We summarize this evidence using an analytic framework addressing four key areas: economic growth and stability; households and markets; wages and employment and government revenue. Twelve key questions are identified and empirical studies and results are discussed. We argue that there is no simple generalizable conclusion about the relationship between trade liberalization and poverty, and the picture is much less negative than is often suggested. In the long run and on average, trade liberalization is likely to be strongly poverty alleviating, and there is no convincing evidence that it will generally increase overall poverty or vulnerability. But there is evidence that the poor may be less well placed in the short run to protect themselves against adverse effects and take advantage of favorable opportunities.
1,045 citations
TL;DR: The good governance agenda is unrealistically long and growing longer over time as discussed by the authors, and there is little guidance about what's essential and what's not, what should come first and what should follow, what can be achieved in the short term and what can only be achieved over the longer term, what is feasible and what is not, and more attention is given to sorting out these questions, "good enough governance" may become a more realistic goal for many countries faced with the goal of reducing poverty.
Abstract: The good governance agenda is unrealistically long and growing longer over time. Among the multitude of governance reforms that “must be done” to encourage development and reduce poverty, there is little guidance about what's essential and what's not, what should come first and what should follow, what can be achieved in the short term and what can only be achieved over the longer term, what is feasible and what is not. If more attention is given to sorting out these questions, “good enough governance” may become a more realistic goal for many countries faced with the goal of reducing poverty. Working toward good enough governance means accepting a more nuanced understanding of the evolution of institutions and government capabilities; being explicit about trade-offs and priorities in a world in which all good things cannot be pursued at once; learning about what's working rather than focusing solely on governance gaps; taking the role of government in poverty alleviation seriously; and grounding action in the contextual realities of each country.
1,027 citations
Book•
27 May 2004
TL;DR: Redistribution in the United States and Europe: the data as discussed by the authors, the data, economic explanations, political institutions and redistribution, the origin of political institutions, race and redistribution and the ideology of redistribution.
Abstract: 1 Introduction 2 Redistribution in the United Sates and Europe: the data 3 Economic explanations 4 Political institutions and redistribution 5 The origin of political institutions 6 Race and redistribution 7 The Ideology of Redistribution 8 Conclusions Index
912 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors synthesize the literature on poverty and disasters in the United States and present the results from a wide range of studies conducted over the past twenty years, which illustrates that the poor are more vulnerable to natural disasters due to such factors as place and type of residence, building construction, and social exclusion.
Abstract: This article synthesizes the literature on poverty and disasters in the United States and presents the results from a wide range of studies conducted over the past twenty years. The findings are organized into eight categories based on the stages of a disaster event. The review illustrates how people of different socioeconomic statuses perceive, prepare for, and respond to natural hazard risks, how low-income populations may be differentially impacted, both physically and psychologically, and how disaster effects vary by social class during the periods of emergency response, recovery, and reconstruction. The literature illustrates that the poor in the United States are more vulnerable to natural disasters due to such factors as place and type of residence, building construction, and social exclusion. The results have important implications for social equity and recommendations for future research and policy implementation are offered.
835 citations
TL;DR: In this article, the authors evaluate how the Progresa program, which provides poor mothers in rural Mexico with education grants, has affected enrollment and extrapolate these estimates to the lifetime schooling and the earnings of adults to approximate the internal rate of return on the public schooling subsidies as they increase expected private wages.
828 citations
22 Mar 2004
Abstract: AFRICA'S DEVELOPMENT CRISIS is unique. Not only is Africa the poorest region in the world, but it was also the only major developing region with negative growth in income per capita during 1980-2000 (table 1). Some African countries grew during the 1990s, but for the most part this growth recovered ground lost during the 1980s. Moreover, Africa's health conditions are by far the worst on the planet. The AIDS pandemic is wreaking havoc, as is the resurgence of malaria due to rising drug resistance and the lack of effective public health systems. Africa's population continues to soar, adding ecological stresses to the economic strains. Policy-based development lending to Africa over the past twenty years, known as structural adjustment lending, did not solve the problem. A heavy debt burden is evidenced by the 155 Paris Club restructurings of African countries' debt between 1980 and 2001, much more than for any other region. In general, Africa remains mired in poverty and debt. This paper focuses on the tropical sub-Saharan African countries with populations of at least 2 million people in 2001. We leave out North Africa (Algeria, Egypt, Libya, Morocco, and Tunisia,), southernmost Africa (Botswana, Lesotho, Namibia, South Africa, and Swaziland), and a number of very small economies (Cape Verde, Comoros, Djibouti, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, The Gambia, Guinea-Bissau, Mauritius, Sao Tome and Principe, and Seychelles). Both nontropical ends of Africa are much richer than tropical Africa. They grow temperate crops, escape the worst of malaria, enjoy (in the south) vast deposits per capita of gold and diamonds, and (in the north) benefit from proximity to EU markets. The smallest economies present idiosyncrasies that would distract more than inform the analysis. The thirty-three sub-Saharan African countries on which we focus (and which are listed in table 2) had a combined population of 617 million in 2001, with a population-weighted average annual income of $271 per person, or a mere 74 cents a day. Every country on the list is a low-income country according to World Bank country classifications, and twenty-six are among the forty-nine Least Developed Countries in the world by the United Nations classification. Of the four countries with income per capita of $500 or more, three (Angola, Cameroon, and Congo) are oil exporters, and only Cote d'Ivoire, which is currently in a vertiginous political and economic collapse, is a non-oil exporter. Every country on the list has a life expectancy at birth below sixty years, and in all but Ghana, Madagascar, and Sudan life expectancy at birth is below fifty-five years. Child mortality rates (deaths before the age of five per 1,000 live births) are above 100 in every country. The standard diagnosis is that Africa is suffering from a governance crisis. With highly visible examples of profoundly poor governance, for example in Zimbabwe, and widespread war and violence, as in Angola, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Liberia, Sierra Leone, and Sudan, the impression of a continent-wide governance crisis is understandable. Yet it is wrong. Many parts of Africa are well governed even though stuck in poverty. Governance is a problem, but Africa's development challenges run much deeper. Using our thirty-three-country sample, table 2 reports some common governance indicators that make this point. The first column presents a ranking of African governance compiled by Steven Radelet, (1) who regresses a set of widely used World Bank governance indicators due to Daniel Kaufmann, Aart Kraay, and Massimo Mastruzzi on GDP per capita, (2) and ranks countries according to the residuals from that regression, thereby standardizing the measurement of governance by level of income. This procedure recognizes that poorer countries have systematically poorer governance measures than richer countries, since good governance itself requires real resources. Well-governed African countries are defined as those with residuals at least 1 standard error above, and poorly governed countries as those with residuals at least 1 standard error below, the regression line. …
765 citations
TL;DR: This article presented a new assessment of progress in reducing poverty over 1981-2001 using more consistent data and methods, closely following the methods underlying the Attacking Poverty (World Bank 2000) numbers, which had been based on Chen and Ravallion (2000).
Abstract: This article offers a new assessment of progress in reducing poverty over 1981–2001 using more consistent data and methods, closely following the methods underlying the Attacking Poverty (World Bank 2000) numbers, which had been based on Chen and Ravallion (2000). In common with our past estimates, the authors draw on nationally representative surveys as much as possible. The article reviews the methods of measuring poverty from those surveys and notes any changes from past estimates, though the authors refer readers to other sources for further discussion of our methods and alternatives. The new estimates presented here supersede all our previous estimates in that the authors recalculate everything back in time on a consistent basis incorporating the new data. The authors summarize our results in a standard regional tabulation following previous work. However, the authors have also created a Web-based interactive tool, PovcalNet, that allows users to access the primary distributions and so estimate poverty measures for alternative country groupings or for a selected set of individual countries (http:/ /iresearch.worldbank.org/povcalnet). The article first describes the coverage of the survey data. It then discusses the poverty line and exchange rates, followed by the measures of poverty, and then presents the main results.
689 citations
TL;DR: The empirical basis of the neoliberal argument is questioned and the evidence confirms that globalization in the context of the world economic regime in place since the end of Bretton Woods generates more "mutual benefit" than "conflicting interests".
TL;DR: In this article, the authors present empirical evidence suggesting a robust and negative correlation between the presence of a sizable natural resource sector and the level of democracy in Africa and argue that resource abundance not only is an important determinant of democratic transition but also partially determines the success of democratic consolidation in Africa.
Abstract: Political economists point to the levels of economic development, poverty, and income inequality as the most important determinants of political regimes. The authors present empirical evidence suggesting a robust and negative correlation between the presence of a sizable natural resource sector and the level of democracy in Africa. They argue that resource abundance not only is an important determinant of democratic transition but also partially determines the success of democratic consolidation in Africa. The results illuminate the fact that post-Cold War democratic reforms have been successful only in resource-poor countries such as Benin, Mali, and Madagascar. The authors argue that resource-rich countries such as Nigeria and Gabon can become democratic only if they introduce strong mechanisms of vertical and horizontal accountability within the state.
TL;DR: The effect of this density in reducing maternal mortality is greater than in reducing child mortality, possibly because qualified medical personnel can better address the illnesses that put mothers at risk.
TL;DR: The most striking result is that, while poverty is predictive of poor nutrition among preschool children, food insecurity does not provide any additional predictive power for this age group.
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors find that financial intermediary development reduces income inequality by disproportionately boosting the income of the poor and therefore reduces poverty. But their results are not robust to controlling for simultaneity bias and reverse causation.
Abstract: While substantial research finds that financial development boosts overall economic growth, the authors study whether financial development is pro-poor: Does financial development disproportionately raise the income of the poor? Using a broad cross-country sample, the authors find that the answer is yes: Financial intermediary development reduces income inequality by disproportionately boosting the income of the poor and therefore reduces poverty. This result is robust to controlling for simultaneity bias and reverse causation.
Journal Article•
TL;DR: In this article, the authors examined the causes and implications of remittance flows and highlighted the severe limitations in remittance data, in contrast to other sources of external finance, and examined the key trends in remittance flows, and their importance relative to other external finance.
Abstract: Remittances have emerged as an important source of external development finance for developing countries in recent years This paper examines the causes and implications of remittance flows It first highlights the severe limitations in remittance data, in sharp contrast to other sources of external finance It then examines the key trends in remittance flows, and their importance relative to other sources of external finance The paper subsequently analyses the many complex economic and political effects of remittances It highlights the fact that remittances are the most stable source of external finance and play a critical social insurance role in many countries afflicted by economic and political crises While remittances are generally pro-poor, their effects are greatest on transient poverty However, the long-term effects on structural poverty are less clear, principally because the consequences of remittances on long-term economic development are not well understood The paper then concludes with some policy options It suggests a role for an international organization to intermediate these flows to lower transaction costs and increase transparency, which would both enhance these flows and maximize their benefits
Posted Content•
TL;DR: The authors examine the allocation of foreign aid by 41 donor agencies, bilateral and multilateral, and find that the same group of multilateral and bilateral aid agencies that are very policy focused are also very poverty focused.
Abstract: Dollar and Levin examine the allocation of foreign aid by 41 donor agencies, bilateral and multilateral. Their policy selectivity index measures the extent to which a donor's assistance is targeted to countries with sound institutions and policies, controlling for per capita income and population. The poverty selectivity index analogously looks at how well a donor's assistance is targeted to poor countries, controlling for institutional and policy environment as measured by a World Bank index. The authors' main finding is that the same group of multilateral and bilateral aid agencies that are very policy focused are also very poverty focused. The donors that appear high up in both rankings are the World Bank's International Development Association, the International Monetary Fund's Enhanced Structural Adjustment Facility, Denmark, the United Kingdom, Norway, Ireland, and the Netherlands. As a robustness check the authors alternatively use institutional quality measures independent of the World Bank and find the same pattern of selectivity. They also find that policy selectivity is a new phenomenon: in the 1984-89 period, aid overall was allocated indiscriminately without any consideration to the quality of governance, whereas in the 1990s there was a clear relationship between aid and governance (institutions and policies). This increasing selectivity of aid is good news for aid effectiveness. The bad news is that the aid agencies that the authors survey vary greatly in size. Some donors that are largest in absolute size, such as France and the United States, are not particularly selective. Japan comes in high on the policy selectivity index but far down on the poverty selectivity index, reflecting its pattern of giving large amounts of aid in Asia to countries that are well governed but in many cases not poor. This paper - a product of Development Policy, Development Economics Senior Vice Presidency - is part of a larger effort in the Bank to examine aid effectiveness.
TL;DR: In this article, a review of risk, insurance and poverty in developing countries is presented, focusing on the effects of agricultural shocks and their implications for insurance, as well as the role of financial intermediation and public action.
Abstract: Overview RISK AND INSURANCE: EVIDENCE 1. Risk, Insurance and Poverty: a review 2. Consumption Smoothing Across Space: Testing Theories of Risk-Sharing in the ICRISAT Study Region of South India RISK AND POVERTY: THEORY 3. The Two Poverties 4. Inequality and Risk RISK AND POVERTY PERSISTENCE 5. Household Income Dynamics in Rural China 6. Health, Shocks and Poverty Persistence 7. The Macroeconomic Repercussions of Agricultural Shocks and their Implications for Insurance IDENTIFYING THE VULNERABLE 8. Measuring Vulnerability to Poverty 9. Targeting and Informal Insurance RISK AND SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS 10. Risk-Sharing and Endogenous Network Formation 11. Is a Friend in Need a Friend Indeed? Inclusion and Exclusion in Mutual Insurance Networks in Southern Ghana 12. The Gradual Erosion of the Social Security Function of Customary Land Tenure Arrangements in Lineage-Based Societies SAFETY NETS AND SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS 13. Do Public Transfers Crowd Out Private Transfers? Evidence from a Randomized Experiment in Mexico 14. Food Aid and Informal Insurance 15. Why isn't there more Financial Intermediation in Developing Countries? DEVELOPING BETTER PROTECTION FOR THE POOR 16. Can Food-for-Work Programmes Reduce Vulnerability? 17. Learning from Visa(R)? Incorporating Insurance Provisions in Microfinance Contracts 18. Can Financial Markets be Tapped to Help Poor People Cope with Weather Risks? CONCLUSION 19. Risk, Poverty, and Public Action
TL;DR: In this article, the authors present an overview of changes over the last two decades in the distribution of income in the United States and the impact of these changes on income inequality in the US.
Abstract: PART I: INCOME DISTRIBUTION TRENDS,THEORIES AND POLICIES 1. Inequality, Growth and Poverty: An Overview of Changes over the Last Two Decades 2. Income Distribution Changes and Their Impact in the Post-World War II period PART II: TRADITIONAL CAUSES OF INEQUALITY: STILL RELEVANT FOR EXPLAINING ITS RISE IN THE 1980S-90S? 3. Land Ownership Inequality and the Income Distribution Consequences of Economic Growth 4. Does Educational Achievement Help Explain Income Inequality? 5. Rural and Urban Income and Poverty: Does Convergence Between Sectors Offset Divergence within Them? PART III. RECENT FACTORS INFLUENCING THE DISTRIBUTION OF INCOME 6. Globalization, Technology and Income Inequality: A Critical Analysis 7. External Liberalization, Economic Performance and Distribution in Latin America and Elsewhere 8. Labour Market Institutions and Income Inequality: What are the New Insights after the Washington Consensus? 9. Increased Income Inequality in OECD Countries and the Redistributive Impact of the Government Budget 10. Income Distribution and Tax and Government Social Spending Policies in Developing Countries 11. The Impact of Adjustment Related Social Funds on Income Distribution and Poverty PART IV. COUNTRY CASE STUDIES 12. Reducing Poverty and Inequality in India: Has Liberalization Helped? 13. Factor Shares and Resource Booms: Accounting for the Evolution of Venezuelan Inequality 14. The Impact of Financial Liberalization and the Rise of Financial Rents on Income Inequality: The Case of Turkey 15. The Changing Nature of Inequality in South Africa 16. Growth, Structural Change and Inequality: The Experience of Thailand Index
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors examine the speed of change in diet, activity, and obesity in the developing world, and note potential exacerbating biological relationships that contribute to differences in the rates of change.
Abstract: This paper examines the speed of change in diet, activity, and obesity in the developing world, and notes potential exacerbating biological relationships that contribute to differences in the rates of change. The focus is on lower- and middle-income countries of Asia, Africa, the Middle East, and Latin America. These dietary, physical activity, and body composition changes are occurring at great speed and at earlier stages of these countries' economic and social development. There are some unique issues that relate to body composition and potential genetic factors that are also explored, including potential differences in body mass index (BMI)—disease relationships and added risks posed by high levels of poor fetal and infant growth patterns. In addition there is an important dynamic occurring—the shift in the burden of poor diets, inactivity and obesity from the rich to the poor. The developing world needs to give far greater emphasis to addressing the prevention of the adverse health consequences of this shift to the nutrition transition stage of the degenerative diseases
01 Jan 2004
TL;DR: The authors argue that social protection can be affordable; it should extend to all of the population; it can contribute to the Millennium Development Goal of poverty reduction; and it can empower marginalised people and be socially transformative.
Abstract: A catalogue record for this publication is available from the British Library. All rights reserved. Reproduction, copy, transmission, or translation of any part of this publication may be made only under the following conditions: • with the prior permission of the publisher; or • with a licence from the or from another national licensing agency; or • under the terms set out below. This publication is copyright, but may be reproduced by any method without fee for teaching or non-profit purposes, but not for resale. Formal permission is required for all such uses, but normally will be granted immediately. For copying in any other circumstances, or for re-use in other publications, or for translation or adaptation, prior written permission must be obtained from the publisher, and a fee may be payable. Printed by XPS Limited, Brighton UK IDS is a charitable company limited by guarantee and registered in England (No. 877338). iii Summary Social protection describes all public and private initiatives that provide income or consumption transfers to the poor, protect the vulnerable against livelihood risks, and enhance the social status and rights of the marginalised; with the overall objective of reducing the economic and social vulnerability of poor, vulnerable and marginalised groups. This paper argues against the popular perception of social protection as " social welfare programmes for poor countries " , consisting of costly targeted transfers to economically inactive or vulnerable groups. It also challenges the limited ambition of social protection policy in practice, which has moved little from its origins in the " social safety nets " discourse of the 1980s, and aims to provide " economic protection " against livelihood shocks, rather than " social protection " as broadly defined here. Instead, we argue that social protection can be affordable; it should extend to all of the population; it can contribute to the Millennium Development Goal of poverty reduction; and it can empower marginalised people and be socially " transformative " .
TL;DR: The authors argue that the behavioral patterns of the poor may exhibit the same basic weaknesses and biases as do people from other walks of life, except that in poverty, with its narrow margins for error, the same behaviors often manifest themselves in more pronounced ways and can lead to worse outcomes.
Abstract: Standard theorizing about poverty falls into two camps. Social scientists regard the behaviors of the economically disadvantaged either as calculated adaptations to prevailing circumstances or as emanating from a unique "culture of poverty," rife with deviant values. The first camp presumes that people are highly rational, that they hold coherent and justified beliefs and pursue their goals effectively, without mistakes, and with no need for help. The second camp attributes to the poor a variety of psychological and attitudinal short-fallings that render their views often misguided and their choices fallible, leaving them in need of paternalistic guidance. We propose a third view. The behavioral patterns of the poor, we argue, may be neither perfectly calculating nor especially deviant. Rather, the poor may exhibit the same basic weaknesses and biases as do people from other walks of life, except that in poverty, with its narrow margins for error, the same behaviors often manifest themselves in more pronounced ways and can lead to worse outcomes. In what follows, we illustrate the kinds of insights that might be gained from a behaviorally more realistic analysis of the economic conditions of the poor, and we propose that alternative policies for alleviating poverty be considered.
TL;DR: In this article, the role of forests in alleviating poverty in rural Malawi was examined, and it was shown that access to forest income reduced measured income inequality at the study sites, which suggests that forests prevent poverty by supplementing income, and may also help to improve the living standards of households that are able to enter into high return forest occupations.
Abstract: This paper examines the role forests play in alleviating poverty in rural Malawi. Data from three villages in southern Malawi indicate high levels of forest dependence. Gini decomposition shows that access to forest income reduced measured income inequality at the study sites. Tobit analysis of the determinants of reliance on low-return and high-return forest activities indicates that asset-poor households are more reliant on forest activities compared with the better off; reliance on high-return activities is conditioned also by availability of adult male labor and location. Taken together, the study's findings suggest that forests prevent poverty by supplementing income, and may also help to improve the living standards of households that are able to enter into high-return forest occupations. Policy implications are discussed.
TL;DR: The estimated burden of noncommunicable diseases in South Asia, the risk factors for these diseases, the limitations of the available data, and the attempts being made to gather evidence of better quality are reviewed are reviewed.
Abstract: This article explores the burden of the major non-communicable diseases in South Asia and the extent to which obstacles hinder prevention and management of these diseases
The World Health Organization (WHO) stated in 2002 that “in many regions, some of the most formidable enemies of health are joining forces with the allies of poverty to impose a double burden of disease, disability and premature death in many millions of people.”1 This is what is happening in South Asia, which has one quarter of the global population but where about half the population lives below the poverty line and has limited access to health care. Although infectious diseases remain a formidable enemy, the population is ageing and non-communicable diseases are rising.2–4 South Asia has made fair economic progress in recent decades but is struggling to find a road towards sustainable development.
We review here the estimated burden of noncommunicable diseases in South Asia, the risk factors for these diseases, the limitations of the available data, and the attempts being made to gather evidence of better quality. We aim to provide a profile of non-communicable disease burdens in this region.
We conducted a systematic search on Medline; used reports from WHO and other international organisations; and communicated with experts in the field. Although non-communicable diseases have been variously defined, we propose to limit the term to four major disease categories that are linked by common risk factors: cardiovascular diseases, diabetes mellitus, cancers, and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Dietary consumption patterns, physical inactivity, tobacco use, and environmental pollution are among the common risk factors shared by these disorders, providing common pathways of epidemiological transition as well as public health action.
Validated nationally representative estimates of cause specific mortality are not available for any country in South Asia. The available …
TL;DR: There are many promising measures that might be pursued: establishment of goals for improved coverage in the poor, rather than in entire populations, and use of those goals to direct planning toward the needs of the disadvantaged.
TL;DR: The direct and indirect effects of relative poverty on the development of emotional, behavioural and psychiatric problems, in the context of the growing inequality between rich and poor, are considered.
Abstract: The World Health Organization has described poverty as the greatest cause of suffering on earth. This article considers the direct and indirect effects of relative poverty on the development of emotional, behavioural and psychiatric problems, in the context of the growing inequality between rich and poor. The problems of children in particular are reviewed. Targets to reduce inequality have been set both nationally and internationally.
TL;DR: This review discusses antimicrobial resistance in developing countries and the risk factors responsible.
TL;DR: In this article, the authors used a new data set of 126 intervals from 60 developing countries to analyze the growth elasticity of poverty, that is, how much does poverty decline in percentage terms with a given percentage rise in economic growth, and they found that while economic growth does reduce poverty in developing countries, the rate of poverty reduction depends very much on how economic growth is defined.
TL;DR: In this paper, the effect of aid on poverty, rather than on economic growth, is examined, and a "pro-poor (public) expenditure index" is devised to measure the leverage of aid donors on public expenditure.
Abstract: The paper examines the effect of aid on poverty, rather than on economic growth. We devise a ‘pro-poor (public) expenditure index’, and present evidence that, together with inequality and corruption, this is a key determinant of the aid's poverty leverage. After presenting empirical evidence which suggests a positive leverage of aid donors on pro-poor expenditure, we argue for the development of conditionality in a new form, which gives greater flexibility to donors in punishing slippage on previous commitments, and keys aid disbursements to performance in respect of policy variables which governments can influence in a pro-poor direction.
Book•
19 Feb 2004
TL;DR: Risk and poverty -life and risk, risk in poor rural economics the risk coping strategies of the rural poor -reducing exposure to shocks risk sharing the limits to risk coping -the limits to self-protection, sharing and power, risk sharing and credit, information asymmetries, risk saring networks, the breakdown of the solidarity system risk and inequality -a stylized economy, no marketable assets, accumulation with no sharing, accumulation and risk sharing, imperfect commitment, risk and poverty trap risk and development -nutrition and human capital, risk-and technological innovation, commercial
Abstract: Risk and poverty - life and risk, risk in poor rural economics the risk coping strategies of the rural poor - reducing exposure to shocks risk sharing the limits to risk coping - the limits to self-protection, sharing and power, risk sharing and credit, information asymmetries, risk saring networks, the breakdown of the solidarity system risk and inequality - a stylized economy, no marketable assets, accumulation with no sharing, accumulation and risk sharing, imperfect commitment, risk and poverty trap risk and development - nutrition and human capital, risk and technological innovation, commercial crops vs. subsistence farming, precautionary saving and investment constraints, risk sharing and risk taking conclusion - what we have learned, what we do not know, what local governments can do, what the international community can do.