Showing papers on "Precipitation published in 1993"
TL;DR: In this paper, the Canadian Land Surface Scheme (CLSS) is described and the accompanying vegetation model is described, including physically based treatment of energy and moisture fluxes from the canopy as well as radiation and precipitation cascades through it, and incorporating explicit thermal separation of the vegetation from the underlying ground.
Abstract: In the companion to the present paper, the soil model associated with CLASS (Canadian Land Surface Scheme) was outlined. In this paper, the accompanying vegetation model is described. This model includes physically based treatment of energy and moisture fluxes from the canopy as well as radiation and precipitation cascades through it, and incorporates explicit thermal separation of the vegetation from the underlying ground. Seasonal variations of canopy parameters are accounted for. The morphological characteristics of the ‘composite canopy’ associated with each grid square are calculated as weighted averages over the vegetation types present. Each grid square is divided into a maximum of four separate subareas: bare soil, snow-covered, vegetation-covered, and snow-and-vegetation covered.
Test runs were done in coupled mode with the Canadian Climate Centre GCM, to evaluate the performance of CLASS compared with that of the simpler land surface scheme previously used. Two versions of CLASS were run: one with ponded surface water saved between time steps, and one with it discarded. For the seasons of June—July—August and December—January—February, diagnostic calculations showed that the old scheme underestimated the globally averaged land surface screen temperature by as much as 3.0°C, and overestimated the globally averaged precipitation rate over land by up to 1.0 mm day−1. CLASS, on the other hand, produced screen temperature anomalies, varying in sign, of 0.2–0.3°C, and positive precipitation anomalies of 0.6–0.7 mm day−1. The relatively poor performance of the old model was attributed to its neglect of vegetation stomatal resistance, its assumption that the contents of the soil moisture ‘bucket’ had to be completely frozen before the surface temperature could fall below 0°C, and its use of the force-restore method for soil temperatures, which systematically neglects long-term thermal forcing from the soil substrate. The assumption made in most GCMs that excess surface water immediately becomes overland runoff is shown to result in substantial overestimates of surface screen temperatures in continental interiors.
552 citations
Abstract: A tropical deforestation experiment has been conducted in which the tropical moist forest throughout the Amazon Basin and SE Asia has been replaced by scrub grassland in a version of the National Center for Atmospheric Research Community Climate Model (Version 1), which also incorporates a mixed layer ocean and the Biosphere-Atmosphere Transfer Scheme. In both regions we find a smaller temperature increase than did all other previous experiments except that of Henderson-Sellers and Gornitz (1984); indeed, temperatures decrease in some months. On the other hand, we find larger runoff decreases and a larger difference between the changes in evaporation and precipitation than all earlier experiments indicating a basin-wide decrease in moisture convergence. Disturbances in South America extend beyond the region of land-surface change causing temperature reductions and precipitation increases to the south of the deforested Amazon. Changes to the surface climate in the deforested area take between 1 to 2 years to become fully established although the root zone soil moisture is still decreasing in year 3 and the variability of soil moisture and total cloud amount continue increasing throughout the 6-year integration. Besides temperature and precipitation, other fields show statistically significant alterations, especially evaporation and net surface radiation (both decreased).
406 citations
TL;DR: In this article, tree-ring data from subalpine conifers in the southern Sierra Nevada were used to reconstruct temperature and precipitation back to A.D. 800 and showed that the 20th century is anomalous with respect to precipitation variation.
347 citations
TL;DR: The last deglacial hemicycle was characterized by a general increase in temperature and precipitation in the region, with a few significant departures from this general trend as discussed by the authors, and the present NE-SW climatic gradient was maintained throughout the entire period, except in the Upper Holocene.
288 citations
TL;DR: A review of geomorphological evidence suggesting the nature of environmental changes in South America during the Last Glaciation Maximum (LGM) is given in this paper, where data are from glacial, geocryogenic, alluvial, colluvial and aeolian systems and span 68° of latitude.
275 citations
TL;DR: In this article, the authors examined large-scale changes in solid and total precipitation and satellite-derived snow cover over the North American continent and found a strong correlation exists between snow cover and temperature.
Abstract: Contemporary large-scale changes in solid and total precipitation and satellite-derived snow cover were examined over the North American continent. Annual snow cover extent over the last 19 years decreased up to 6×105 km2 relative to a 0.93°C (0.33°C) increase in North American (Northern Hemisphere) temperature. A strong correlation exists between snow cover and temperature where up to 78% of the variance in regional snow cover and snowfall is explained by the anomalies of monthly mean maximum temperature. Over the last two decades the decrease in snow cover during winter (December-March) has largely occurred through reduced frequency of snow cover in areas that typically have a high probability of snow on the ground with little change in the frequency of snow cover in other areas. Similar characteristics were observed during spring (April-May) in areas with high snow cover probability except for an expansion of the snow-free regions. Anomalies in these two seasons dominate the interannual variab...
269 citations
TL;DR: The impacts of surface albedo and soil moisture upon the climate simulated in GCMs with bare-soil land surfaces are well known as discussed by the authors. But only a small fraction of these have significant sensitivity studies been carried out and published.
Abstract: Aspects of the land-surface and boundary-layer treatments in some 20 or so atmospheric general circulation models (GCMS) are summarized. In only a small fraction of these have significant sensitivity studies been carried out and published. Predominantly, the sensitivity studies focus upon the parameterization of land-surface processes and specification of land-surface properties—the most important of these include albedo, roughness length, soil moisture status, and vegetation density. The impacts of surface albedo and soil moisture upon the climate simulated in GCMs with bare-soil land surfaces are well known. Continental evaporation and precipitation tend to decrease with increased albedo and decreased soil moisture availability. For example, results from numerous studies give an average decrease in continental precipitation of 1 mm day−1 in response to an average albedo increase of 0.13. Few conclusive studies have been carried out on the impact of a gross roughness-length change—the primary st...
252 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors used a n 11-day running average of daily mean air temperature to estimate daily mean soil temperature at a depth of 10 cm using linear regression and found that changes of soil temperature under snow cover were smaller than those without snow cover.
Abstract: Soil temperature is a necessary component for estimating below-ground processes for continental and global carbon budgets; however, there are an insufficient number of climatic stations monitoring soil temperature. We used a n 11-day running average of daily mean air temperature to estimate daily mean soil temperature at a depth of 10 cm using linear regression. This model was tested using data from 6 climate reg~ons across the United States. Frequency analyses for 17 of 19 data sets showed that the number of days which were w~thin a k3.5OC range centered on the measured sol1 temperature va r~ed from 77 to 96%. The values of R2 between observed and final predicted soil temperatures ranged from 0.85 to 0.96 with standard errors from 1.5 to 2.9"C for all 19 simulations. Changes of soil temperature under snow cover were smaller than those without snow cover. Soil temperature under vegetation cover was also simulated assuming the rate of soil warming under vegetation cover would be reduced with increasing leaf area index according to the Beer-Lambert Law. Annual soil respiration can be estimated from the predicted soil temperature with reasonable accuracy. Daily soil temperature may be predicted from daily air temperature once regional equations have been established, because weather stations in the United States can be generalized into a few regions and sites wthin each region may use the same equation.
243 citations
01 Jan 1993
TL;DR: The climate of tropical South America is characterized over large areas by a high annual precipitation, varying from 1,000 mm to more than 5, 000 mm per year as mentioned in this paper, and a pronounced seasonality in rainfall results in the periodic flooding of large areas covered by forests or savanna vegetation.
Abstract: The climate of tropical South America is characterized over large areas by a high annual precipitation, varying from 1,000 mm to more than 5,000 mm per year. A pronounced seasonality in rainfall results in the periodic flooding of large areas covered by forests or savanna vegetation. Therefore, most of the wetlands in this area belong to the category of seasonal wetlands with a pronounced dry period.
241 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, the bulk depositional fluxes of 210Pb and 7Be were measured at a coastal (Galveston) and an inland (College Station) station for about 3 years, between 1989 and 1991.
Abstract: The bulk depositional fluxes of 210Pb and 7Be were measured at a coastal (Galveston) and an inland (College Station) station for about 3 years, between 1989 and 1991. The annual depositional fluxes of 7Be and 210Pb at Galveston during this period varied by a factor of about 2.5, between 8.9 and 23.2 disintegrations per minute (dpm) cm−2 yr−1, with a mean of 14.7 dpm cm−2 yr−1 for 7Be, and 0.67 and 1.71 dpm cm−2 yr−1, with a mean of 1.03 dpm cm−2 yr−1 for 210Pb, respectively. The precipitation-normalized 7Be flux increases with increasing amount of precipitation. There is no systematic and consistent seasonal trend in the depositional fluxes for 7Be or for 210Pb. The volume-weighted 210Pb concentrations, when normalized to the amount of precipitation, seem to be constant over the time period of this study. Four to six heavy rain events (> 5 cm) in a single day account for 20–30% of the annual deposition of 7Be and 210Pb. Such events account, however, for only about 4–6% of the total number of rainy days in a year. The dry depositional fluxes of these nuclides appear to be a significant fraction of the bulk depositional flux only during the months when there is very little rain. The fraction of dry to total depositional flux of 210Pb appears to be higher than that of 7Be. The strong positive correlation between 7Be and 210Pb depositional fluxes indicates that the flux of both nuclides is controlled by scavenging processes by local precipitation. This correlation also indicates that a major portion of the air masses that brings precipitation to Galveston and College Station is of continental origin. Our data therefore suggest that 7Be and 210Pb cannot be used as independent atmospheric tracers in our coastal station. This observation is consistent with those observed at many other continental and coastal stations.
219 citations
TL;DR: Observations showed a trend of increased interannual variability of Indian monsoon precipitation associated with warmer land and ocean temperatures in the monsoon region.
Abstract: Doubled atmospheric carbon dioxide concentration in a global coupled ocean-atmosphere climate model produced increased surface temperatures and evaporation and greater mean precipitation in the south Asian summer monsoon region. As a partial consequence, interannual variability of area-averaged monsoon rainfall was enhanced. Consistent with the climate sensitivity results from the model, observations showed a trend of increased interannual variability of Indian monsoon precipitation associated with warmer land and ocean temperatures in the monsoon region.
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors considered the problem of storage in a reservoir behind a dam and derived the asymptotic distributions of storage, evaporation, and runoff analytically for a simple balance model.
Abstract: The accumulation of soil water during rainfall events and the subsequent depletion of soil water by evaporation between storms can be described, to first order, by simple accounting models. When the alternating supplies (precipitation) and demands (potential evaporation) are viewed as random variables, it follows that soil-water storage, evaporation, and runoff are also random variables. If the forcing (supply and demand) processes are stationary for a sufficiently long period of time, an asymptotic regime should eventually be reached where the probability distribution functions of storage, evaporation, and runoff are stationary and uniquely determined by the distribution functions of the forcing. Under the assumptions that the potential evaporation rate is constant, storm arrivals are Poisson-distributed, rainfall is instantaneous, and storm depth follows an exponential distribution, it is possible to derive the asymptotic distributions of storage, evaporation, and runoff analytically for a simple balance model. A particular result is that the fraction of rainfall converted to runoff is given by (1 - R−1)/(eα(1−R−1) − R−1), in which R is the ratio of mean potential evaporation to mean rainfall and a is the ratio of soil water-holding capacity to mean storm depth. The problem considered here is analogous to the well-known problem of storage in a reservoir behind a dam, for which the present work offers a new solution for reservoirs of finite capacity. A simple application of the results of this analysis suggests that random, intraseasonal fluctuations of precipitation cannot by themselves explain the observed dependence of the annual water balance on annual totals of precipitation and potential evaporation.
TL;DR: A series of simulations of the late spring and early summer of 1988 were conducted in order to study the relative importance of different boundary forcings to the Goddard Laboratory for Atmospheres (GLA) model's simulation of the heat wave and drought over the United States during this time period.
Abstract: A series of simulations of the late spring and early summer of 1988 were conducted in order to study the relative importance of different boundary forcings to the Goddard Laboratory for Atmospheres (GLA) model's simulation of the heat wave and drought over the Great Plains of the United States during this time period. Separate 60-day simulations were generated from 10, 20, and 30 May 1988 with a variety of boundary condition datasets. For the control experiment, climatological boundary conditions were used. This was followed by experiments in which either the observed 1988 sea surface temperatures (SST) or derived 1988 soil moisture values, or both, were used in place of the climatological fields. Additional experiments were conducted in which only tropical or midlatitude SST anomalies were used. The impact of the different boundary forcings was evaluated relative to the control simulations of the precipitation and surface air temperature over the Great Plains. It was found that the tropical SST anomalies had a significant effect in reducing precipitation in this area, while the midlatitude anomalies did not. Due to the prescribed climatological soil moistures for the SST experiments, a significant increase in surface temperature did not occur in these simulations. In contrast, the simulations with the anomalous 1988 soil moistures produced both a larger reduction of precipitation and a significant increase in surface temperature over the Great Plains. The simulations with both anomalous SST and soil moisture showed only a slight augmentation of the heat wave and drought relative to the experiments with anomalous soil moisture alone.
TL;DR: Temporal correlations between NDVI, temperature and precipitation were computed to examine the spatial variability of the relationships between those parameters as well as to investigate the potential for the combined use of NDVI and temperature for global bioclimate monitoring as mentioned in this paper.
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors used a dune mobility index, which incorporates wind strength and the ratio of mean annual precipitation to potential evapotranspiration, to show that under predicted greenhouse climate effects of increased temperature and reduced precipitation, sand dunes and sand sheets on the Great Plains are likely to become reactivated over a significant part of the region.
TL;DR: In this paper, a degree-day model developed for parameterizing melt rates on the Greenland ice sheet is adapted to the climatic conditions on glaciers in southern Norway by means of observed average mass-balance-elevation relationships.
Abstract: A degree-day model developed for parameterizing melt rates on the Greenland ice sheet is adapted to the climatic conditions on glaciers in southern Norway. The model is calibrated by means of observed average mass-balance-elevation relationships (1963–90) for three glaciers in a west-east transect in southern Norway and 30 year normals (1961–90) of temperature and precipitation observed at nearby climate stations. The calibration gives a surprisingly small variation of the model parameters (degree-day factors for snow-and ice-melt, and precipitation-elevation gradient) from one glacier to another. The derived values of the parameters are used to estimate the change of the mass-balance-elevation relationship for different climatic scenarios. The study indicates that a low-lying glacier in the maritime, high-precipitation environment near the Atlantic coast is more sensitive to both temperature and precipitation changes than the high elevated glaciers in the dry, more continental climate farther away from the coast. However, all of the glaciers studied will lose mass in a warmer climate, unless the warming is accompanied by a dramatic increase in the precipitation of 25–40% deg−1 warming.
TL;DR: In this paper, the meridional structure of the Hadley circulation system, which is a combined structure of a general circulation model and the tropical precipitation zone, is examined from the standpoints of the water vapor and the energy budgets.
Abstract: A series of numerical experiments is performed using a general circulation model with an idealistic ocean-covered boundary condition. The meridional structure of the Hadley circulation system, which is a combined structure of the Hadley circulation and the tropical precipitation zone, is examined from the standpoints of the water vapor and the energy budgets. Although the prescribed SST distribution has a broad peak centered at the equator, the distribution of the precipitation has two peaks straddling the equator. The distribution of the evaporation rate is revealed to be an important factor in the formation of this structure. The evaporation rate is smaller near the equator than in the subtropics because of its dependence upon the wind speed. If this dependence is removed from the parameterization of the evaporation, the latitudinal distribution of evaporation becomes flat and the precipitation concentrates at the equator to form a single band structure. Qualitatively similar results are obtain...
TL;DR: In this article, three evolutionary regimes of snow behavior were identified: immediate avalanches, delayed avalanching, and return to stability following the onset of rain in the central Cascade Mountains of the United States.
Abstract: The mechanical response of snowpacks to penetrating liquid water was observed over two winter seasons in the central Cascade Mountains, Washington, U.S.A. Following the onset of rain, three evolutionary regimes of snow behavior were identified: immediate avalanching, delayed avalanching, and return to stability. Immediate avalanching occurred within minutes to an hour after the onset of rain and the time of release could be predicted with an accuracy of less than an hour from meteorological forecasts of the transition from snow to rain. These avalanches usually slid on surfaces substantially deeper than the level to which water or associated thermal effects had penetrated. The mechanism by which alteration of a thin skin of surface snow can cause deep slab failure has not been identified, but several possibilities involving a redistribution of stress are discussed. Delayed avalanches released several hours after rain started. The delay varied, depending on the rate of increasing stress associated with the additional precipitation, and on the time taken for water to penetrate and weaken a potential sliding layer. It is difficult to define accurately the evolving distribution of liquid water in snow which makes it difficult to predict accurately the time of avalanching. Depth profiles of the rate of snow settlement showed that a wave of increased strain rate propagated into the snow in response to penetrating water. This type of measurement could prove useful for predicting when snow stability is reaching a critical condition. Avalanche activity was rare after continuation of rain for 15 h or more. This return to stability occurred after drainage structures had evolved and penetrated the full depth of the snowpack. Established drain channels route water away from potential sliding surfaces and are also relatively strong structures within a snowpack.
TL;DR: In this paper, two conditional chain-dependent processes are fit to time series of daily precipitation amounts given an index of large-scale atmospheric circulation (i.e., either below or above normal monthly mean sea level pressure).
Abstract: Conditional chain-dependent processes are fit to time series of daily precipitation amounts given an index of large-scale atmospheric circulation (i.e., either below or above normal monthly mean sea level pressure). Precipitation data for January at several locations in California are analyzed. The two conditional daily models differ both in terms of the parameters of the occurrence process and of the intensity process. Each of these daily effects contributes to changes in the distribution of monthly total precipitation associated with the circulation index. The process induced by combining the conditional daily models produces a variance for monthly total precipitation much closer to the observed value than that for the corresponding unconditional chain-dependent model.
TL;DR: In this paper, a model is described that simulates Lagrangian transport of moist static energy and total water through a 3D finite element grid, where precipitation is the only scavenging agent of both variables.
Abstract: Precipitation in remote mountainous areas dominates the water balance of many water-short areas of the globe, such as western North America. The inaccessibility of such environments prevents adequate measurement of the spatial distribution of precipitation and, hence, direct estimation of the water balance from observations of precipitation and runoff. Resolution constraints in atmospheric models can likewise result in large biases in prediction of the water balance for grid cells that include highly diverse topography. Modeling of the advection of moisture over topographic barriers at a spatial scale sufficient to resolve the dominant topographic features offers one method of better predicting the spatial distribution of precipitation in mountainous areas. A model is described herein that simulates Lagrangian transport of moist static energy and total water through a 3D finite-element grid, where precipitation is the only scavenging agent of both variables. The model is aimed primarily at the re...
TL;DR: In this article, a stochastic model is described that allows transfer of information from general circulation models to precipitation gauge locations using a weather state classification scheme, which is related stochastically to gauge daily precipitation and temperature.
Abstract: A stochastic model is described that allows transfer of information from general circulation models to precipitation gauge locations using a weather state classification scheme. The weather states, which are based on present and previous day's sea level pressure, are related stochastically to gauge daily precipitation and temperature. Weather states are defined to give maximal separation of test station precipitation distributions using the Classification and Regression Trees procedure. Precipitation amounts are resampled from historical observations, conditional on the weather state and the previous day's rain state. Daily temperature maxima and minima are simulated by conditioning on the present and previous day's rain state, with the residual modeled as a first-order autoregressive process. The model parameters are estimated using 9 years (1965–1973) of concurrent U.S. National Meteorological Center (NMC) gridded observations and four precipitation stations in the Columbia River Basin. The model is illustrated using both historical NMC gridded observations of sea level pressure and lower atmosphere temperature, as well as the same variables from the General Fluid Dynamics Laboratory general circulation model for present climate and CO2 doubling. A 40-year sequence of simulated precipitation and temperature is used to estimate seasonal streamflows and flood frequency distributions under present and doubled CO2 climates.
TL;DR: In this article, the chemical composition of precipitation was related to the origin of storms and the situation and particular orography of each sampling point determine the amount of precipitation received from each direction and, therefore, the chemical features of rain at each location.
TL;DR: The authors showed that at rural sites in eastern Spain, red rains have much higher ion concentrations than non-red rains, and they account for up to 50% of the mean annual input of dissolved elements in bulk precipitation, though they make up only a minor part of the annual rainfall.
Abstract: Saharan dust delivered by so-called ‘red rains’ strongly influences precipitation chemistry in the Mediterranean region We show here that at rural sites in eastern Spain, red rains have much higher ion concentrations than non-red rains, and they account for up to 50% of the mean annual input of dissolved elements in bulk precipitation, though they make up only a minor part of the annual rainfall The mean annual input of alkalinity in red rains is enough to neutralize the input of free acidity in acidic precipitation Transport of Saharan dust is thus a major ecological force in Mediterranean ecosystems through its effects on the acid neutralizing capacity of the atmosphere and the atmospheric deposition of elements
TL;DR: In this paper, a parameterization of the synoptic activity at 500 hPa and a simple orographic scheme are used to model the spatial and temporal variations of precipitation over the Greenland Ice Sheet for 1963-88 from analyzed geopotential height fields produced by the National Meteorological Center (NMC).
Abstract: A parameterization of the synoptic activity at 500 hPa and a simple orographic scheme are used to model the spatial and temporal variations of precipitation over the Greenland Ice Sheet for 1963–88 from analyzed geopotential height fields produced by the National Meteorological Center (NMC). Model coefficients are fitted to observed accumulation data, primarily from the summit area of the ice sheet. All major spatial characteristics of the observed accumulation distribution are reproduced apart from the orographic accumulation maximum over the northwestern coastal slopes. The modeled time-averaged total precipitation amount over Greenland is within the range of values determined by other investigators from surface-based observations. A realistic degree of interannual variability in precipitation is also simulated. A downward trend in simulated ice sheet precipitation over the 26 years is found. This is supported by a number of lines of evidence. It matches the accumulation trends during this peri...
TL;DR: In this article, an experiment involving the National Center for Atmospheric Research's Kin Air aeroplane was conducted in order to measure the microphysical properties of New Mexican summertime cumulus clouds.
Abstract: An experiment, involving the National Center for Atmospheric Research's Kin Air aeroplane, was conducted in order to measure the microphysical properties of New Mexican summertime cumulus clouds. Since the clouds formed and developed essentially in place, over the mountains, it was possible to make multiple penetrations through a single cloud, therby observing a significant fraction of the cloud's life cycle. In this paper, the questions of primary- and secondary-ice production, and the development of precipitation particles, are addressed.
Primary-ice nucleation was found to occur when the temperature within the cloud reached a value of between −10 and −12°C irrespective of whether this was in the updraught or downdraught. Drops with diameters of about 0.5 mm were often observed in concentrations of about 10L−1 before the formation of ice. which suggests a nucleation mechanism involving large drops. The maximum concentrations of ice particles observed in these clouds (up to about 1300L−1) are much greater than typical concentrations of ice particles that can be attributed to primary-ice nucleation. Evidence suggests that the most likely explanation is the Hallett-Mossop process of secondary-ice-crystal production.
Ice particles generally were first observed in the downdraughts. The development of precipitation is often thought to occur via downdraught transport. followed by sedimentation or mixing of ice particles into fresh. liquid-laden turrets. The multi-thermal nature of the cloud is considered to be central to this process.
TL;DR: A method for defining critical levels is proposed, which uses climatological average data to identify the duration and frequency of hill cloud, and combines this information with measured or modelled concentrations of particulate sulphate in the atmosphere, to derive cloud water concentrations as a function of cloud liquid water content.
TL;DR: In this article, the characteristics of the annual cycle of tropical convection and its relationship to sea surface temperature field and the general circulation of the tropics are reviewed. And the hierarchal nature of tropical precipitation variability on time/space scales ranging from synoptic cloud clusters through the intraseasonal Madden-Julian Oscillation to multi-year El Nino-Southern Oceanscillation cycle is discussed.
Abstract: Observational studies and model experiments make abundantly clear the need for a global perspective in order to understand the nature and causes of persistent regional precipitation anomalies. Rainfall in the deep tropics is particularly important as a forcing mechanism for the atmosphere's large-scale circulation and climate. Analysis of systematic space-based observations and surface marine data over the past three decades has vastly improved our understanding of tropical convective regimes and their relationship to surface conditions. The characteristics of the annual cycle of tropical convection and its relationship to sea surface temperature field and the general circulation of the tropics are reviewed. The hierarchal nature of tropical precipitation variability on time/space scales ranging from synoptic cloud clusters through the intraseasonal Madden-Julian Oscillation to multiyear El Nino-Southern Oscillation cycle is discussed. Links between tropical convection and extratropical precipita...
TL;DR: A process-oriented forest soil temperature model, FORSTEM, is presented that considers vertical heat conduction as well as freezing and thawing, and it lumps the effects of forest canopies on soil surface temperature with the surface heat transfer coefficient.
Abstract: A process-oriented forest soil temperature model, FORSTEM, is presented. FORSTEM considers vertical heat conduction as well as freezing and thawing, and it lumps the effects of forest canopies on s...
TL;DR: In this article, a network of collectors located in a fully developed lowland beech plantation was used to estimate interception losses, which are the difference between precipitation and the net precipitation.