Showing papers on "Primary education published in 1986"

A Hierarchical Model for Studying School Effects

Abstract: When researchers investigate how school policies, practices, or climates affect student outcomes, they use multilevel, hierarchical data. Though methodologists have consistently warned of the formidable inferential problems such data pose for traditional statistical methods, no comprehensive alternative analytic strategy has been available. This paper presents a general statistical methodology for such hierarchically structured data and illustrates its use by reexamining the High School and Beyond data and the controversy over the effectiveness of public and Catholic schools. The model enables the researcher to utilize mean achievement and certain structural parameters that characterize the equity in the social distribution of achievement as multivariate outcomes for each school. Variation in these school-level outcomes is then explained as a function of school characteristics.

Parents' Reactions to Teacher Practices of Parent Involvement

Abstract: The Elementary School Journal Volume 86, Number S O 1986 by The University of Chicago. All rights reserved. 0013-5984/86/8603-0002$01.00 Teachers have strong opinions about parent involvement. Some believe that they can be effective only if they obtain parental assistance on learning activities at home. Others believe that their professional status is in jeopardy if parents are involved in activities that are typically the teachers' responsibilities. The different philosophies and beliefs of teachers reflect the two main, opposing theories of school and family relations. One perspective emphasizes the inherent incompatibility, competition, and conflict between families and schools and supports the separation of the two institutions (Parsons, 1959; Waller, 1932; Weber, 1947). It assumes that school bureaucracies and family organizations are directed, respectively, by educators and parents, who can best fulfill their different goals, roles, and responsibilities independently. Thus, these distinct goals are achieved most efficiently and effectively when teachers maintain their professional, general standards and judgments about the children in their classrooms and when parents maintain their personal, particularistic standards and judgments about their children at home.

The Social Context of Effective Schools.

Abstract: This article analyzes differences in the operation of school effectiveness factors in high- and low-SES effective schools. Observable differences are found on several effectiveness variables. The social context of the effective schools appears to influence the breadth of the curriculum, the allocation and use of instructional time, the instructional leadership role of the principal, the nature of the school reward system, and the type of expectations embedded in school policies and practices. These findings, though tentative, indicate that practitioners should not treat the well-publicized effectiveness factors as generalizable to all school settings. In addition, the results suggest that researchers concerned with understanding the process of effective schooling should focus on the manner in which these schools translate contextual expectations into school policies and classroom practices.

Self-Efficacy and Skill Development: Influence of Task Strategies and Attributions

Abstract: This study determined how task strategies and attributions for success during mathematics learning influenced children's self-efficacy and skills. Children who lacked division skills received training and practiced solving problems. Children's use of effective task strategies was determined from recordings of their verbalizations while they solved problems. Attributions of problem-solving success to high ability exerted the strongest influence on increases in self-efficacy. Higher self-efficacy and use of task strategies promoted children's division skills. Future research should determine the relationship of strategy use and self-efficacy at different times while children are learning. Implications of this study for teaching are discussed.

On Listening to What the Children Say

Abstract: A growing number of teachers and researchers are collaborating on research projects involving classroom learning; some teachers, however, become their own investigative reporters. Vivian Gussin Paley has developed a method for studying the young child in her classroom that is at the same time a new approach to teaching. In this essay, she explains how the method evolved and describes its effect in the classroom.

A Developmental Perspective of Formal Spelling Instruction Through Alphabet, Pattern, and Meaning

Abstract: Until recently, educators attributed spelling errors to such things as poor sound discrimination and inadequate visual and sequential memory. These interpretations are faulty, however, because they rest on two erroneous assumptions: (1) The spelling system of English is purely alphabetic and irregular, and (2) Pupils must learn most words by serial memory alone. Research of the past 20 years in linguistics and in cognitive and developmental psychology explains far more adequately how students learn to spell (Henderson & Beers, 1980; Read & Hodges, 1982; Schlagal, 1982). This work demonstrates that English spelling can be taught systematically and that its mastery is not a peripheral skill but is central to literacy. In this article we present information that supports this new perspective of spelling instruction. First, we examine the system of English spelling and note the different levels on which it represents information about the English language. Second, we present five stages of spelling knowledge through which achieving learners pass. For each stage, we outline the implications of developmental knowledge for direct instruction. We conclude with a

Elementary School Climate: A Revision of the OCDQ.

Abstract: The Organizational Climate Description Questionnaire is evaluated and refined in light of an investigation of the construct, organizational climate. The authors outline the development and testing of the revised instrument and report the empirical data collected in this process.

Effects of Listening to Series Stories on First Graders' Comprehension and Use of Language.

Abstract: This study investigated the effects of reading a series-format many-volumed story to disadvantaged first graders. Experimental and control classes were chosen randomly from the same school. Children were read to in a whole-class setting for the last 20 minutes of the school day, for six months. Children in control classes continued their usual learning activities. Children who had been read to outscored children in the control classes on measures of decoding, reading comprehension, and active use of language. The study reported here is one in a series of experimental studies that investigated the effects of reading to children in school. All of the studies have in common that: (a) they were carried out in naturalistic school settings, (b) children were read to for several months, and (c) the texts read to them were action stories from trade books. The impetus for these studies came from two recurrent findings in educational research literature. First, despite the fact that all children in technologically highly developed societies like the United States are extensively exposed to written language through lists, labels, notes, television, and junk mail (Anderson & Stokes, 1984; Goodman & Altwerger, 1981; Heath, 1983; Snow, 1983; Taylor, 1983; Teale, 1986), there nevertheless exist pervasive social class and cultural differences in the amount and nature of parents' storybook reading to their preschool-aged children (Anderson & Stokes, 1984; Feitelson & Goldstein, 1986; Heath, 1982, 1983; Schieffelin & Cochran-Smith, 1984; Scollon & Scollon, 1981; Teale, 1986). Second correlational links have been established between parental reading to children and academic success (Chomsky, 1972; Clark, 1976; Durkin, 1966, 1984). ConWe would like to thank Ellen B. Mandinach, Edward A. Chittenden, Roy O. Freedle, an anonymous reviewer, and the Editors of RTE for their helpful comments on earlier versions of this report. The report was prepared while the first author was on a sabbatical at Educational Testing Service, Princeton, New Jersey. The camaraderie and facilities enjoyed there are gratefully acknowledged. Requests for reprints should be addressed to: Dina Feitelson, School of Education, University of Haifa, 31 999 Haifa, Israel. Research in the Teaching of English, Vol. 20, No. 4, December 1986

The role of discipline-based art education in America's schools

Abstract: (1987). The Role of Discipline-Based Art Education in America's Schools. Art Education: Vol. 40, No. 5, pp. 6-45.

Transitions and Tensions: Interrelationship between the Drawing, Talking, and Dictating of Young Children.

Abstract: Within the context of a common school activity, this study examined the meanings young children express in talk, pictures, and written text, focusing on how children draw upon all three in one composing event Data collection took place an average of twice per week over a five-month period in a public school kindergarten Collected data included the children's drawn and dictated products, audiotaped recordings of the children's talk while drawing and of their dictations, and observational notes The study's findings illustrate children's exploration of imagined worlds through drawing and talk, and, at the same time, the potential problems children face in transferring those worlds to text Five-year-old Rachel is engrossed in the drama unfolding before her, as she draws and tells a story about a distraught mother on Christmas day: And she [the mom] couldn't find the door the way to find that Christmas tree She was trying to get to the other side to get her little baby And she was trying to get her 'cuz she might get hurt She's just a little bitty girl And they saw a No I don't know how to write [draw] that Given a sheet of paper and a box of crayons, many young children, like Rachel, begin to shape not only line and color but language too as they create imagined worlds, worlds of time and space, and of actors, objects, and actions This drawing is now viewed as a major writing strategy for young children (Graves, 1983; Newkirk & Atwell, 1982), a kind of "language art" (Baghban, 1984) Yet, there is little understanding of the connections among drawing, its accompanying talk, and written text How exactly do children create worlds through talk and drawing, and how easily can those worlds be contained in text? Support for this work was provided in part by a seed grant from the Spencer Foundation, distributed by the School of Education, University of California-Berkeley The interpretations expressed herein are my own I thank Sarah Freedman, Celia Genishi, and RTE editors and reviewers for their helpful comments I also thank Victoria Purcell-Gates for her considerable help in the initial stages of this project Research in the Teaching of English, Vol 20, No 4, December 1986

Viewpoint 2. Pupil Age at School Entrance-How Many Are Ready for Success?.

Abstract: Research on Academic Success of Early Entrants Much of the research we will review compares elementary school children who at the time they entered school were less than five years three months of age when enrolled in kindergarten or six years three months when en rolled in 1st grade (often called \"sum mer children\" because their birthdays fall between June and September) with children who were as much as six years three months old at kindergar ten entrance or seven years three months when they started 1st grade. To summarize this research very briefly: 1. The chronologically older chil dren in a grade tend to receive many more above-average grades from teachers than do younger children in that grade. 2. Older children also are much more likely to score in the aboveaverage range on standardized achievement tests. 3 The younger children in a grade are far more likely to have failed at least one grade than are older chil dren. 4. The younger children in a grade are far more likely to have been re ferred by teachers for learning disabil ities testing and subsequently have been diagnosed as being learning dis abled than are older students in a grade 5. The academic problems of young er children who were developmental ly unready at school entrance often last throughout their school careers and sometimes even into adulthood. For example, a study of 278 pupils in the Hebron, Nebraska, Elementary School (Uphoff, 1985) found that 23 percent of the population had birth days between June 1 and October 15, the cutoff date for that state. Another 9 percent were born in the same time period but had been held back for one year before starting school. The youn gest group (summer children: SC) made up 75 percent of the school's failure population, while none of the held-back summer children (HBSC) had failed a grade. That study also found that although the SC had a higher average IQ (girls, 115; boys, 107) than the HBSC (girls,

Academic Characteristics of Behaviorally Disordered and Learning Disabled Students.

Abstract: The academic performance of 1.480 behaviorally disordered and learning disabled children attending grades 1-3 was compared. Results indicated that differences in academic performance between behavi...

Organizational Analysis of Stress The Case of Elementary and Secondary Schools

Abstract: This article is an organizational analysis of stress in 42 elementary school organizations and 45 secondary school organizations. Organizational stress is operationalized as the aggregate average response to survey questions on the teachers' level of general stress on the job. The predictors of stress differ for elementary school organizations and secondary school organizations. Among the independent variables emerging as important are role ambiguity, the rationality of promotion, and supervisory behavior.

Effects of Teacher Wait Time on Discourse Characteristics in Mathematics and Language Arts Classes

Abstract: Ten classes were randomly assigned to a group that received feedback and assistance to maintain an average teacher wait time of between 3 and 5 seconds during a sequence of mathematics lessons. A control group of 10 teachers maintained a regular wait time and received placebo feedback. The study was replicated in a sequence of language arts lessons. The use of an average teacher wait time of between 3 and 5 seconds in whole class instructional settings was associated with higher mathematics achievement and improvements in the quality of teacher and student discourse. In extended wait time classes in the mathematics component of the study, decreases were observed in the number of utterances per unit time, the average length of teacher utterances, the frequency of teacher interruptions, failure of students to respond to teacher questions, the proportion of teacher reacting to student responses, and the proportion of teacher mimicking of student responses. Increases were observed in the average length of stu...

Birthdate effects on school performance and adjustment: A longitudinal study.

Abstract: The effects of age at school entry on school performance and adjustment were examined by comparing six birthdate groups, each representing two months of the calendar year of school entry. School performance measures were tests of cognitive skills at school entry, parent and teacher ratings of performance at grade 3, and tests of aptitude and achievement at grade 4. School adjustment variables were ratings of behavioral and emotional functioning by parents at school entry and grade 3 and by teachers at kindergarten and grade 3. The use of school-based services was also assessed. Results indicated age group differences on cognitive ability at school entry, with the youngest group having the lowest scores and the oldest group having the highest scores. There were no age differences with respect to performance and adjustment in subsequent years.

Cooperation, Collaboration, and a Computer: Integrating a Computer into a First-Second Grade Writing Program.

Abstract: The introduction of a computer into the writing program of a first-second grade classroom was studied ethnographically. Its use as a tool for collaborative writing led to analysis of the emergence of cooperation and collaboration during the semester, consideration of the role of the computer in fostering this development, and analysis of the effects of collaboration on interaction during writing time. The teacher encouraged cooperation and collaborative endeavors in curriculum areas other than writing. Collaborative writing projects began to appear in the writing period when children worked on social studies projects and wrote at the computer. Paper and pencil work during writing time was nearly always done by children writing their own pieces and was accompanied by minimal talk about writing. Collaborative work at the computer created a new social organization that affected interactional patterns. In contrast to interaction usually found during writing time, collaborative writing sessions included considerable talk conducive to planning, selfmonitoring and responding to what was being written. Computers are becoming an important feature of many schools and are affecting growing numbers of language arts and English programs. As of 1984 there was one computer for every 125 public school children and one for every 92 children in schools that have computers (Toch, 1984). Computers have been heralded as a powerful tool that can provide children with learning experiences to develop their thinking skills and improve metacognitive awareness (Papert, 1980). Computers can increase children's involvement in learning, perhaps especially in children with histories of school failure (Adams, 1983; Papert, 1980; Sheingold, Kane & Endreweit, 1983), they can enhance children's enjoyment of writing and improve the quality of what they produce (Daiute, 1985; Riel, 1983). I would like to thank Mary Owens and Hilary Sullivan for help with transcribing the data and Linda Kotowicz and John Jeka for help coding the data. Most of all I want to thank the teachers and children of the Martin Luther King, Jr. School who participated in this study. An earlier version of this paper was presented at the American Educational Research Association convention in Chicago in March of 1985. Research in the Teaching of English, Vol. 20, No. 4, December 1986

Elementary Science as a Little Added Frill: A Report of Two Case Studies.

Abstract: I'm quite certain that you could go for a year without teaching science and there would be no comment. Parents sec science as a little added frill, maybe. I don't think they see it being as important, for instance, as math is–that you know how to add, subtract or that you are able to read.

Tutoring interventions within special education settings: A comparison of cross-age and peer tutoring†

Abstract: In two experiments, cross-age and peer tutoring interventions conducted within special education settings were compared. In Experiment 1, learning disabled (LD) and behaviorally disordered (BD) students acted as tutors of younger LD and BD students. In Experiment 2, same-age LD and BD students alternated tutor and tutee roles. In both experiments, tutors and tutees exhibited academic gains. Only in Experiment 1, however, were attitudinal gains observed. Implications for future research and practice are given.