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Showing papers on "Professional ethics published in 1985"


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors address a significant gap in the theoretical literature on marketing ethics and present an integrated framework which clarifies and synthesizes the multiple value-based approaches. But the gap is not addressed in this paper.
Abstract: This article addresses a significant gap in the theoretical literature on marketing ethics. This gap results from the lack of an integrated framework which clarifies and synthesizes the multiple va...

1,770 citations


Book
01 Jan 1985
TL;DR: In this paper, Johnson has added two new chapters on the Internet: one focusing on ethical behavior online, and the other addressing the social implications of the Internet, and they are presented in compelling and understandable language so that rigorous, in-depth analysis is accessible to students who may be novices in philosophy or technology studies.
Abstract: From the Publisher: Author Deborah G. Johnson has updated material throughout this text. Two new chapters on the Internet have been added: one focuses on ethical behavior online, and the other addresses the social implications of the Internet. Topics covered include: What is computer ethics? What are the philosophical foundations of computer ethics? How does computer ethics relate to professional ethics? Privacy. Property rights. Accountability. All topics are presented in compelling and understandable language, so that rigorous, in-depth analysis is accessible to students who may be novices in philosophy or technology studies.

534 citations




Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this article, the authors discuss the ethical issues in graduate education, and present a survey of the main issues in the field of higher education, focusing on the following issues: 1.
Abstract: (1985). Ethical Issues in Graduate Education. The Journal of Higher Education: Vol. 56, No. 4, pp. 403-418.

103 citations


Book
01 Jan 1985
TL;DR: On being an ethical psychologist as discussed by the authors discusses the ethical obligations of psychotherapists, making ethical decisions, enforcing of ethical conduct, knowing thyself, competence and credentials, privacy, confidentiality, and record keeping.
Abstract: On being an ethical psychologist -- Making ethical decisions -- Enforcement of ethical conduct -- Knowing thyself: competence and credentials -- Psychotherapy part I. Ethical obligations of psychotherapists -- Pyschotherapy part II. Techniques and controversies -- The mental health business: money and manage care -- Privacy, confidentiality, and record keeping -- Psychological assessment: testing tribulations -- Multiple-role relationships I. Boundaries, risks and doing business -- Multiple-role relationships II. Close encounters -- Multiple-role relationships III. Attraction, romance, and sexual intimacies -- Relationships with colleagues, supervisees, and employees -- Marketing professional services -- The public face of mental health professionals -- Ethical dilemmas in academic settings -- Mental health practitioners in the legal system: tort and retort -- Challenging work settings: juggling porcupines -- Scholarly publication and the responsible conduct of research -- Appendix A. American Psychological Association's Ethical principles of psychologists and code of conduct -- Appendix B. Canadian Psychological Association: Canadian code of ethics for psychologists -- Appendix C. American Counseling Association: code of ethics -- Appendix D. National Association of Social Workers: code of ethics -- Appendix E. American Association of Marriage and Family Therapy: code of ethics -- Appendix F. American Psychiatric Association: The principles of medical ethics with annotations especially applicable to psychiatry.

102 citations





Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: It is naive to think a moral philosopher armed with a moral theory can step into an emergency room or intensive care nursery and immediately dissolve moral conundrums and it’s presumptuous to think that health

66 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: The history of psychology's involvement in nuclear war issues can be found in the American Psychological Association (APA) archives as mentioned in this paper, where a review of nuclear-related research is presented.
Abstract: \" Psychologists\" current participation in nuclear armament issues constitutes the latest moment in a telling chronicle of engagement. Psychologists\" work on nuclear-war-related problems since 1945 has been sporadic, and their research corresponds with modulations in government policy. The history of these activities presents a sobering case that we can use to evaluate both the underlying forces on our research and the feasibility of our professional model of social responsibility. The recent activities of psychologists suggest some alternatives for our involvement in an imperative global issue, specifically for rethinking just what is psychological about the problems, and for determining what problems might or should concern psychologists. The present exploration of psychologists'past engagements suggests that we must go beyond simply evaluating our science as a corpus of either intellectual innovations or ideologies. We must begin more critical scrutiny of how we attain appropriate questions and share our answers. North American psychologists' concern with nuclear armament has escalated over the last several years. Throughout the country, groups of psychologists have begun to assist in the grassroots antinuclear movement, and at the 1982 annual meeting of the American Psychological Association (APA), the Council of Representatives passed a nuclear freeze resolution. Although in keeping with the new antinuclear cause, psychologists' involvement is not novel but actually represents a rather measured step in a historical progression. Knowledge of this history casts the recent events as somewhat expected occurrences and, in turn, gives reason for sober reflection on psychologists' participation. For although psychologists' nuclear-related activities exemplify an enduring commitment to the preservation of human welfare, they also feature several problems associated with those revered commitments. The discipline's heritage of contributing expert knowledge to social policy has long employed a model that equates responsible involvement with the provision of objective knowledge derived independently of political interests. However, neither political impartiality nor steadfast commitment to what is a compelling problem proves to be the case in this particular history. Perhaps, then, it is not so startling that the history also undercuts another implicit assumption of our professional model: the belief that psychology's expert advice is heeded in government decision making. Psychologists' concern with questions about nuclear war commenced almost simultaneously with public knowledge of the atomic bomb, and their research practices appear to have vacillated in accordance with the general political climate in the United States, specifically with changes in foreign policy. To some critics these parallels would suggest that socially relevant social scientific research is influenced either by concrete linkages between government, business, and the academic world or by a hegemony of corporate ideology (see Domhoff, 1970, 1978; Shroup & Minter, 1977; Wise & Ross, 1964). Although these hypotheses are deserving of investigation it is not necessary to demonstrate any orchestrated collaboration. Textual analyses of the pertinent documents reveal that psychologists' conventional practices are sufficient in themselves to have cemented such bonds. What follows is not a comprehensive history, for we still need to learn more about the direct connections between theory, research, and application. This history, comprised from a review of nuclear-related research (19451984), raises questions about our venerated and largely self-designated model of social responsibility. The history of psychologists' involvement in nuclear war issues forces us to reconsider our scientific obligations, personal options, and professional selfappraisals. Psychology and Social Practice Psychologists' acclaimed dedication to bettering human life predates the establishment of professional associations, laboratories, and the institution of psychology as a scientific discipline (Leary, 1980; Morawski, 1982; Sarason, 1981). Even the first generation of American psychologists contemplated the social benefits and the special obligations of the discipline. The mandates for socially responsible practices eventually became, and remain, visible in the con276 March 1985 • American Psychologist Copyright 1985 by the American Psychological Association, Inc. 0003-066X/85/$00,75 Vol. 40, No. 3. 276-284 stitutional declaration of the APA, and as perusal of any recent copy of the American Psychologist will confirm, the discipline's contributions to social welfare are still construed as a significant function of contemporary psychology. The acclaimed dedication to human welfare has long rested on several fundamental postulates about the nature of research and the proper modes of utilizing knowledge in the management of society. A fundamental premise is that psychological knowledge is privileged only by virtue of being derived through objective procedures. This premise in turn demarcates the ideal role of psychologists in managing society according to a \"natural\" bifurcation of facts and values, in which psychologists are obliged to provide only the former. Here also lie the ostensible grounds for the distinction between acting as a psychologist and as a citizen. Given an associated assumption that policy decision making is and should be rational, the provision of psychological facts ultimately ensures competent policy judgments and, hence, an advancement in human welfare (for critical analyses of this model see Feyerabend, 1978; Garfinkel, 1978; Morawski, 1983). Throughout the development of the discipline psychologists have promoted this formula with a certain complacency. Although some have become wary of the model, they typically have concentrated on the problems of disseminating knowledge once it is acquired (Bevan, 1976; Miller, 1969). With few exceptions (e.g., Argyris, 1975; Sampson, 1977; Sarason, 1984), the knowledgegenerating aspects of the model have gone unchallenged. This essentially unexamined model, however, contains at least one dilemma that will become evident in the case of nuclear-war-related research. The dilemma and its objectionable consequences are exemplified in the thinking of one consumer of our knowledge, the Republican Senator Orrin Hatch. In an address to psychologists on the use of psychology \"to build a better and stronger society,\" Hatch (1982) claimed that \"among the first considerations is the relationship of psychology as a science to politics in general. Science is a nonpartisan pursuit of knowledge. We in America have a long-standing commitment to the pursuit of new knowledge and to disseminating that knowledge as widely as possible throughout our society\" (pp. 1036-1037). Senator Hatch then appended a material caveat by demanding that in cases where the values of society do not match those of the individual psychologist or the groups of psychologists, it seems to me wisdom would dictate that psychologists Requests for reprints should be sent to J. G. Morawski, Department of Psychology, Wesleyan University, Middletown, Connecticut 06457. should be very cautious and sensitive to the image they are projecting: If psychology is to be accepted as a scientifically valid monitor of society and, even more, if psychology wants to be accepted as a reliable agent for positive social change, psychologists cannot be seen as a group on the fringe of social normality who are promoting social deviance. (p. 1035) That his proscription on socially unacceptable yet valid knowledge is seldom appraised by psychologists may well be owing to the fact that, in practice, it rarely occurs. The history to be recounted here indicates all too clearly how the research procedures used by psychologists ensure against the \"deviance\" Senator Hatch noted. The degree to which psychologists complicitly avoid such \"deviance\" remains to be ascertained. What is of interest at this point, however, is how the dilemma appears to be resolved through a paradox. Through our selection of research orientations, our selective way of viewing a phenomenon, we may diminish or eliminate the actual potential of that research to positively transform social life. Psychologists' concern with atomic war commenced with the 1945 bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. In the last 39 years their efforts have ebbed and flowed largely with the tides of political climate. Although the methods and benevolent intentions of these psychologists dedicated to the nuclear issue did not change much-an emphasis on survey techniques and a hope to promote world peace--the particular foci of their investigations have varied. Research undertaken in the 15 years following World War II largely supported government policy in an attempt to socialize Americans to the benefits of atomic weaponry and energy. During a brief period in the early 1960s, however, psychological research on nuclear war constituted something of a critique of the psychological misperceptions inherent in government policy and foreign affairs. From the mid-1960s until the 1980s, a period of general public quietude, research on psychological issues of the nuclear age nearly ceased. In the last several years, clinically oriented psychologists have begun investigating the psychological consequences of living with the constant threat of nuclear holocaust. Despite changes in the focus of research, certain themes have persisted to structure, and perhaps to inhibit, psychologists' work. Most notable of these themes is the isomorphism between research interests and the prevailing political climate, a correspondence of such magnitude that it belies the value-neutrality mandated in the prototypic model of research practice. Furthermore, despite intense proclamations of responsibility to extend expert knowledge~ many psychologists demonstrated reluctance or inability

Book
01 Jan 1985
TL;DR: In this article, the authors present a logical yet eminently human framework for ethical decision-making based on three steps toward a decision: action (what are the available alternatives?); character (what does it mean to be a professional in relation to the question?); and structure (how do structures limit or modify the alternatives?) The resolution of these and related, subordinate questions, Dr Lebacqz asserts, is the foundation of a new framework for professional ethical decision making.
Abstract: Karen Lebacqz here offers a logical yet eminently human framework for ethical decision making Quoting and clarifying the thoughts of the field's top authorities, Dr Lebacqz summarizes the issues and questions that have, until now, served as the boundaries of debate Then she moves beyond that; formulating new questions, demonstrating why the answers to those questions are critical, laying the groundwork for what eventually emerges--a new way of perceiving and resolving complex ethical questions Professional Ethics: Power and Paradox utilizes the "praxis" method of analysis An actual ethical dilemma is offered, then treated theoretically throughout the text in order to demonstrate how a professional decision involving the dilemma might be reached Central to the ethical framework offered here is the focus on three steps toward a decision: action (what are the available alternatives?); character (what does it mean to be a professional in relation to the question?); and structure (how do structures limit or modify the alternatives?) The resolution of these and related, subordinate questions, Dr Lebacqz asserts, is the foundation of a new framework for ethical decision making

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: A critical review of the literature on family therapy ethics is used to develop the proposition that a more systemic analysis is needed, one that includes the levels of therapist and society as well as patient (family).
Abstract: A critical review of the literature on family therapy ethics is used to develop the proposition that a more systemic analysis is needed, one that includes the levels of therapist and society as well as patient (family). These ideas are discussed through reexamining the issues of family secrets, therapist deceptiveness, and therapist advocacy of personal (feminist) values.



Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: If professional ethics come into conflict with national laws, the professional today can test the legitimacy of such laws by reference to internationally agreed legal standards in the field of human rights, and so help to perform the role of 'professions as the conscience of society'.
Abstract: Ethics is no less of a science than any other. It has its roots in conflicts of interest between human beings, and in their conflicting urges to behave either selfishly or altruistically. Resolving such conflicts leads to the specification of rules of conduct, often expressed in terms of rights and duties. In the special case of professional ethics, the paramount rule of conduct is altruism in the service of a 'noble' cause, and this distinguishes true professions from other trades or occupations. If professional ethics come into conflict with national laws, the professional today can test the legitimacy of such laws by reference to internationally agreed legal standards in the field of human rights, and so help to perform the role of 'professions as the conscience of society'.

Book
15 Oct 1985
TL;DR: This volume moves beyond ethics as problem-solving or ethics as etiquette to offer a look at ethics in primary care-as opposed to life-or-death-medical care.
Abstract: This volume moves beyond ethics as problem-solving or ethics as etiquette to offer a look at ethics in primary care-as opposed to life-or-death-medical care. Professional Ethics and Primary Care Medicine deals with the ethics of routine, day-to-day encounters between doctors and patients. It probes beneath the hard decisions to look at the moral frameworks, habits of thought, and customs of practice that underlie choices. Harmon Smith and Larry Churchill argue that primary care, far from being merely a setting for the rendering of care, provides a new understanding of both physician and patient, and thereby offers a fresh basis for medical ethics.


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: Legal systems and professional ethics committees have failed to find ways to prevent, ameliorate, or contain sexual involvement with therapists, and reasons for the failures are explored.
Abstract: Damage to clients caused by sexual involvement with their therapists is a growing concern for the mental health disciplines. Legal systems and professional ethics committees have failed to find ways to prevent, ameliorate, or contain such sexual involvement. Reasons for the failures are explored and alternative models suggested.




Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: What is needed for the teaching of dental professional ethics has become clear and a set of aims and a sense of the kinds of subject matter that will enable it to be achieved are developed.
Abstract: Programs in professional ethics are still in their infancy in American dental schools. Enough has been learned, however, to know that formal instruction in dental professional ethics is essential to such a program and that arguments against this approach cannot withstand careful examination. We have developed a set of aims and a sense of the kinds of subject matter that will enable us to achieve these aims. We are beginning to identify the kinds of individuals and teams needed to teach these courses. We have learned that these courses will not succeed unless they are taken seriously by the dental school community and actively supported by the faculty. What is needed for the teaching of dental professional ethics has become clear. It is time to proceed in earnest.



Journal Article
TL;DR: In this article, a model of the ethically enlightened professional is also suggested as an ideal for therapeutic recreators to emulate, and recommendations are offered for the revision of the National Therapeutic Recreation Society Statement of Professional Ethics.
Abstract: Ethics is a necessary part of professional practice. Attention to professional ethics in therapeutic recreation, however, has been insufficient. This article examines selected areas of ethical concern, including: (1) confidentiality, (2) social sexual relations, and (3) client autonomy. Emphasis is placed on the special implications each issue holds for therapeutic recreation. Recommendations are offered for the revision of the National Therapeutic Recreation Society Statement of Professional Ethics. In particular, education concerning professional ethics is urged for students and professionals. A model of the ethically enlightened professional is also suggested as an ideal for therapeutic recreators to emulate.

Book ChapterDOI
01 Jan 1985
TL;DR: The authors use the phrase moral phenomena to cover all those facts, and only those, in describing which we have to use, in a specifically moral sense, such words as “ought”, “right, right, good, and their opposites, or any others which are merely verbal translations of them.
Abstract: Ethics may be described as the theoretical treatment of moral phenomena. I use the phrase “moral phenomena” to cover all those facts, and only those, in describing which we have to use, in a specifically moral sense, such words as “ought”, “right”, “good” and their opposites, or any others which are merely verbal translations of them. (This is not intended as a definition; if it were it, would be circular; for I have had to introduce the phrase “in a specifically moral sense” into my description of moral phenomena.) I have had to do this, because words like “ought”, “right”, and “good” are also used in various non-moral senses, and then Ethics is not directly concerned with the facts which they describe.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: The role of professional ethics in teacher education has been discussed in this paper, with a focus on the role of teacher education as a moral practice, and the importance of professional integrity.
Abstract: (1985). The Role of Professional Ethics in Teacher Education. Action in Teacher Education: Vol. 7, No. 3, pp. 21-24.

Journal Article
TL;DR: Patient rights, professional ethics and situational dilemmas in mental health services are discussed in terms of their interrelationships, with a major focus on voluntary clients and community-based services.
Abstract: Patient rights, professional ethics and situational dilemmas in mental health services are discussed in terms of their interrelationships, with a major focus on voluntary clients and community-based services. Vignettes are provided under the headings of: I. The rights to respect, dignity, and non-discrimination; II. The rights to appropriate treatment, to consent and to refuse; III. The rights to least restrictive, least intrusive intervention; IV. The rights to confidentiality of personal information, to consent to or refuse release of records, and the right to peruse personal records. The author stresses that the rights and responsibilities of various parties must be balanced to arrive at the best decisions.

Journal Article
TL;DR: The Therapeutic Recreation Journal (TRJ) as discussed by the authors provides a broad view of the therapeutic recreator field and a collection of articles on professional ethics within the entire recreation park and leisure field.
Abstract: Why would anyone want to be a therapeutic recreator? The salaries, prestige, job security or public recognition do not provide compelling rationale. Because the jobs are not particularly competitive in these ways, there must be other reasons. Perhaps a more compelling rationale could be found by examining the mission, or values perceived to be present in the field. From my experience it is easy to find practitioners who tend to be more concerned with values than personal betterment; people who are typically more concerned with what they are doing to advance the interests of their clients than their health insurance, retirement plan or even salary scale. In a general sense, I read our history in this way and am convinced that without this strong values orientation, there would be no unifying theme to compel a neophyte to join this profession. This orientation to service is not however sufficient. Nurses care, lawyers care, social workers care, teachers care and so do all the other people who work on behalf of others in the fields of education, rehabilitation and human service. Caring, in and of itself, idealism or humanitarianism are therefore not sufficient. It is not that therapeutic recreators care, for we observe everyone has the option to care, regardless of their field; rather it is the way the profession acts and thinks. Assuming that professional behavior is thoughtful, we can better understand what the profession cares about or values by studying how its members behave. It is this study of professional behavior, typically achieved through study of actual case reports from the field, that raises the fundamental question of "ought." These arc the questions of interest in moral philosophy and professional ethics. Given a choice, what is the "right" action? To answer this question within the dynamics of a profession one needs to know more than what he/she personally believes is the "right" action ... they need to know what their colleagues, as a collective body, consider to be "right." This question of "rightness" is instructive to the thinking that directs professional behavior. Within the context of therapeutic recreation one asks, is it "right" to require people to participate in recreation? And if so, under what circumstances and toward what end? Such questions, when raised by a knowing practitioner take on special meaning. They are not easy to answer and because they are situationally specific, seem new each time they are encountered. This special Therapeutic Recreation Journal focuses attention on these questions of ought. Articles examine some current thinking about ethics and point to an agenda designed to help us to better understand what we need to do to advance knowledge with respect to professional ethics and moral ph ilosophy. The articles selected represent a broad view of the profession. Since this is the first publication in the field exclusively devoted to the topic of professional ethics, an effort was made to provide both scope and depth on pertinent issues. In point of fact it may well represent the first collection of writings on the topic of professional ethics within the entire recreation park and leisure field. As Guest Editor, I wish to acknowledge the support from the editorial staff with special recognition to Editor Peter Witt and Associate Editors, Peg Connolly, Rich MacNeil and Andy Weiner, who assisted with the review and final editing of manuscripts.