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Proxy (statistics)

About: Proxy (statistics) is a research topic. Over the lifetime, 5257 publications have been published within this topic receiving 94504 citations. The topic is also known as: proxy variable & proxy measurement.


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Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: When there is a difference between proxy-reported and patient-reported outcomes, proxies tended to report more health and functional limitations among the elderly and disabled population.
Abstract: Proxy responses are very common when surveys are conducted among the elderly or disabled population. Outcomes reported by proxy may be systematically different from those obtained from patients directly. The objective of the study is to examine the presence, direction, and magnitude of possible differences between proxy-reported and patient-reported outcomes in health and functional status measures among Medicare beneficiaries. This study is a pooled cross-sectional study of a nationally representative sample of community-dwelling Medicare beneficiaries from 2006 to 2011. Survey respondents can respond to the Medicare Current Beneficiary Survey either by themselves or via proxies. Health and functional status was assessed across five domains: physical, affective, cognitive, social, and sensory status. Propensity score matching was used to get matched pairs of patient-reports and proxy-reports. After applying the propensity score matching, the study identified 7,780 person-years of patient-reports paired with 7,780 person-years of proxy-reports. Except for the sensory limitation, differences between proxy-reported and patient-reported outcomes were present in physical, affective, cognitive, and social limitations. Compared to patient-reports, a question regarding survey respondents’ difficulties in managing money was associated with the largest proxy response bias (relative risk, RR = 3.83). With few exceptions, the presence, direction, and magnitude of differences between proxy-reported and patient-reported outcomes did not vary much in the subgroup analysis. When there is a difference between proxy-reported and patient-reported outcomes, proxies tended to report more health and functional limitations among the elderly and disabled population. The extent of proxy response bias depended on the domain being tested and the nature of the question being asked. Researchers should accept proxy reports for sensory status and objective, observable, or easy questions. For physical, affective, cognitive, or social status and private, unobservable, or complex questions, proxy-reported outcomes should be used with caution when patient-reported outcomes are not available.

56 citations

Posted Content
TL;DR: This Article argues that AI and big data are game changers when it comes to this risk of unintentional, but “rational,” proxy discrimination, and offers a menu of potential strategies for combatting this risk.
Abstract: Big data and Artificial Intelligence (“AI”) are revolutionizing the ways in which firms, governments, and employers classify individuals. Surprisingly, however, one of the most important threats to antidiscrimination regimes posed by this revolution is largely unexplored or misunderstood in the extant literature. This is the risk that modern algorithms will result in “proxy discrimination.” Proxy discrimination is a particularly pernicious subset of disparate impact. Like all forms of disparate impact, it involves a facially-neutral practice that disproportionately harms members of a protected class. But a practice producing a disparate impact only amounts to proxy discrimination when the usefulness to the discriminator of the facially-neutral practice derives, at least in part, from the very fact that it produces a disparate impact. Historically, this occurred when a firm intentionally sought to discriminate against members of a protected class by relying on a proxy for class membership, such as zip code. However, proxy discrimination need not be intentional when membership in a protected class is predictive of a discriminator’s facially-neutral goal, making discrimination “rational.” In these cases, firms may unwittingly proxy discriminate, knowing only that a facially-neutral practice produces desirable outcomes. This Article argues that AI and big data are game changers when it comes to this risk of unintentional, but “rational,” proxy discrimination. AIs armed with big data are inherently structured to engage in proxy discrimination whenever they are deprived of information about membership in a legally-suspect class whose predictive power cannot be measured more directly by non-suspect data available to the AI. Simply denying AIs access to the most intuitive proxies for such predictive but suspect characteristics does little to thwart this process; instead it simply causes AIs to locate less intuitive proxies. For these reasons, as AIs become even smarter and big data becomes even bigger, proxy discrimination will represent an increasingly fundamental challenge to anti-discrimination regimes that seek to limit discrimination based on protected traits that often happen to be directly predictive characteristics. Numerous anti-discrimination regimes do just that, limiting discrimination based on potentially predictive factors like preexisting conditions, genetics, disability, sex, and even race. This Article offers a menu of potential strategies for combatting this risk of proxy discrimination by AI, including prohibiting the use of non-approved types of discrimination, mandating the collection and disclosure of data about impacted individuals’ membership in legally protected classes, and requiring firms to employ statistical models that isolate only the predictive power of non-suspect variables.

56 citations

Book ChapterDOI
06 Dec 2005
TL;DR: This work proposes a novel short proxy signature scheme from bilinear pairings that satisfies all the properties required for proxy signatures and proves that the scheme is secure in the random oracle model.
Abstract: We present a cryptanalysis on the short proxy signature scheme recently proposed in [11] and propose a novel short proxy signature scheme from bilinear pairings. Compared with the existing proxy signature schemes, the signature length of our scheme is the shortest. Our short proxy signature scheme satisfies all the properties required for proxy signatures. We prove that our scheme is secure in the random oracle model.

56 citations

Patent
Miikka Sainio1, Atte Lahtiranta1
22 Feb 2012
TL;DR: In this paper, a proxy platform determines access information with respect to one or more web resources and decides to initiate a caching of at least a portion of the web resources at the client based, at least in part, on the frequency of access.
Abstract: An approach is provided for proxy-based content discovery and delivery. A proxy platform determines access information with respect to one or more web resources. The access information associated with a client of a proxy server. The proxy platform processes and /or facilitates a processing of the access information to determine a frequency of access of the one or more web resources via the proxy server. The proxy platform then determines to initiate a caching of at least a portion of the one or more web resources at the client based, at least in part, on the frequency of access.

56 citations

Patent
Arup Acharya1, Stefan Berger1, Young-Bae Ko1, Nathan Junsup Lee1, James Rubas1 
18 Jan 2002
TL;DR: In this article, the authors propose a service discovery proxy that allows devices to enter and leave a local domain often and still allow consumers of the service provided by the device to easily detect its availability.
Abstract: The invention provides methods, apparatus and systems that allow devices to enter and leave a local domain often and still allow consumers of the service provided by the device to easily detect its availability. To achieve this, an example embodiment locates a “service discovery proxy” in the local domain. On receiving a service discovery request from a remote inquirer, the proxy resolves the service request based on those services that are determined to be dynamically available in the local domain at that time. The proxy resolves the incoming service request within its local domain by using any method for local service discovery. The response to the service discovery received from the local devices is customized by the service discovery proxy, wherein the customization includes formatting, filtering, aggregating, and/or selecting particular responses. The proxy then sends the customized response back to the remote inquirer.

56 citations


Performance
Metrics
No. of papers in the topic in previous years
YearPapers
20231,242
20222,473
2021334
2020262
2019250
2018282