Showing papers on "Purchasing power published in 2008"

Restructuring the welfare state: reforms in long-term care in Western European countries

Abstract: Summary Faced with the problems associated with an ageing society, many European countries have adopted innovative policies to achieve a better balance between the need to expand social care and the imperative to curb public spending. Although embedded within peculiar national traditions, these new policies share some characteristics: (a) a tendency to combine monetary transfers to families with the provision of in-kind services; (b) the establishment of a new social care market based on competition; (c) the empowerment of users through their increased purchasing power; and (d) the introduction of funding measures intended to foster care-giving through family networks. This article presents the most significant reforms recently introduced in six European countries (France, Germany, Italy, the Netherlands, Sweden and the UK) as regards long-term care. It analyses their impact at the macro- (institutional and quantitative), meso- (service delivery structures) and micro-level (families, caregivers and people in need). As a result the authors find a general trend towards convergence in social care among the countries, and the emergence of a new type of government regulation designed to restructure rather than to reduce welfare programmes.

Integrated approach to understanding consumer behavior at bottom of pyramid

Abstract: Purpose – It is estimated that the poorest of the world, termed as being economically at the bottom of the pyramid (BoP), have a purchasing power of $5 trillion. This paper aims to study what and why they consume, and how firms can best address those needs, an area that is relatively new.Design/methodology/approach – The authors categorize the products and services people at the bottom of the pyramid consume with specific examples of both products and companies in Asia, Africa, and Latin America, and look at the theoretical frameworks that could explain those consumption patterns.Findings – The authors find that despite income and resource constraints, BoP consumers are sophisticated and creative. They are motivated not just by survival and physiological needs but seek to fulfill higher order needs either to build social capital, for cultural reasons or as a compensatory mechanism. They also find that when firms offer products that also fulfill these higher order needs, especially through linkages to educ...

Replacing State Appropriations with Alternative Revenue Sources: The Case of Voluntary Support

Abstract: Public higher education's changing financial environment is well documented (Archibald & Feldman, 2004; Hossler, Lund, Ramin, Westfall, & Irish, 1997; Kane, Orszag, & Gunter, 2003; Rizzo, 2004; Slaughter & Leslie, 1997; Toutkoushian & Hollis, 1998; Weerts & Ronca, 2006). Facing shrinking budgets, competing priorities, public resistance to increasing state levies, and prohibitions on deficit spending, state legislators more and more often find themselves in the unenviable position of debating the relative essentiality of state services, including postsecondary education. As a result, higher education, a discretionary budget item in most states, has often been moved to the end of the state funding queue, resulting in state governments allocating a smaller share of their spending towards higher education (Kane et al., 2003; Rizzo, 2004; State Higher Education Executive Officers [SHEEO], 2007). Consequently, the purchasing power of state appropriations per full-time equivalent student in 2003-04 reached its lowest point in the 30-year period ending in that year. (1) Figure 1 demonstrates that periods of growth and decline in state appropriations occurred as the economy fluctuated, but the declines were generally larger than the recoveries. For a variety of reasons, most notably future increases in state Medicaid expenditures, the purchasing power of state appropriations to higher education may continue to decrease in the future (Hovey, 1999; Kane et al., 2003). This trend in state appropriations can substantially alter the distribution of resources across institutions of higher education. To date, most of the attention has focused on the growing inequality in resources between public and private institutions. Several authors have examined the resulting gap in faculty salaries and the implications for public institutions and their students (Alexander, 2001; Ehrenberg, 2003; Kane & Orszag, 2003; Zoghi, 2003). But the decreased reliance on state appropriations can also change the level of financial inequality among public institutions. To the extent that certain public universities have stronger student demand, wealthier alumni, or a better research infrastructure than other public institutions, these schools will be able to generate greater revenue from alternative sources. Unless these institutions were just as successful in capturing a disproportionate share of state appropriation dollars, stratification among public institutions in terms of financial resources will grow as state appropriations fall. While state appropriations are declining as a share of public institutions' budgets, they remain an important revenue source and a major determinant of an institution's financial well-being. Ehrenberg (2003) finds that changes in state appropriations explain much of the increase in inequality across public institutions in terms of faculty salaries. State dollars have a direct effect on this, as they provide a substantial share of the budgets of many public higher education institutions. But they also have a potential indirect effect: They can impact an institution's ability to acquire revenues from other sources. Merton (1973) and Trow (1984) describe the Matthew Effect, a phenomenon in which advantage begets advantage within numerous facets of higher education. Winston (1999) makes a similar argument while highlighting the importance of financial resources in ensuring initial advantage. This line of research suggests that the advantages gained from additional state dollars help institutions raise revenues from other sources. This possibility is paradoxical in a sense, because state legislators often point to the ability of public colleges and universities to raise substantial revenues from alternative sources as justification for focusing scarce state funds on priorities other than higher education (Hovey, 1999). [FIGURE 1 OMITTED] Although the inability of state appropriations to cover the rising costs of educational inputs can substantially influence resource inequalities across public institutions and the other revenues raised by public institutions, these potential outcomes are often obscured and offset by increases in tuition and fee revenues. …

Easy on the mind, easy on the wallet: The roles of familiarity and processing fluency in valuation judgments

Abstract: Although people routinely estimate the value of items in their environment, from goods and services to natural resources and lost earnings following an accident, the processes that underlie human valuation estimates are not well understood. We show that people use familiarity and fluency—the ease with which they process information—to determine an item’s value. In three experiments, participants believed that familiar forms of currency (e.g., a familiar $1 bill) had greater purchasing power than their unfamiliar counterparts (e.g., a rare and unfamiliar coin). Mechanistic analyses showed a positive correlation between participants’ familiarity with the unfamiliar currency and their estimates of its value. We conclude by discussing the theoretical and practical implications of our findings for researchers, marketing experts, and policymakers alike.

Poverty Alleviation through Sustainable Strategic Business Models: Essays on Poverty Alleviation as a Business Strategy

Abstract: textHow can the private sector serve the unmet needs of the world’s poor while, at the same time, attracting new business opportunities and advancing the standard of living of those living in poverty? One approach to this, known as the base-of the-pyramid, is for the private sector to develop towards including the poor as both producers and consumers. In this thesis we focus on some critical questions in base-of-the-pyramid research. In cooperation with NGOs, development organizations and micro finance institutions, we collected a unique dataset of 143 firms operating in base-of-the-pyramid markets in a total of 105 countries. Their focal group of customers, employees, suppliers, and/or distributors have an average daily purchasing power of $2 or less. Building upon this dataset, we develop an empirically derived classification of business challenges for firms at the base-of-the-pyramid, and examine differences with high-income markets. We also extend and test the central postulate that embedding social and environmental value in a firm’s business model drives a firm’s financial performance at the base-of-the-pyramid. Lastly, we build a management support model, which can be used to develop profitable pro-poor business models. We provide managers and entrepreneurs with the questions to ask, the framework to help formulate answers to these questions, and the qualities to search for in the answers. To this end, we clarify and conceptually advance the strategic business model concept, which provides the multi-theoretical approach necessary for disruptive innovation and augments our understanding of competitive advantage.

Variability in healthcare treatment costs amongst nine eu countries - results from the healthbasket project

Abstract: Patient mobility gives rise to some fundamental information requirements, such as the nature of the basket of services offered in the different Member States, how these are defined, how often they are used for particular patients, what their costs are, what prices are paid for them, the quality with which they are delivered, and their cost-effectiveness. This knowledge will enable both Member States and the European Commission to formulate coherent policies on patient mobility in a way that will preserve both the financial viability of existing health systems and the treasured principles of universality, equity and accessibility. Further, if patients are to benefit from the opportunity offered by the European Union’s emerging healthcare market, they too will need to know the nature, quality and costs of services available elsewhere. Finally, international comparison based on good quality data is an important tool for learning from best practice within and between countries. However, international comparisons of service, cost and quality data are currently not routinely available for individual treatments. Up to now, healthcare cost comparisons have been usually made at an aggregate level and variations have been identified at the macro-level, e.g. in purchasing power parities (PPPs) per capita, as a percentage of GDP, distribution of expenditure per sector. Most fundamentally, analysis of international variation in the costs of individual services at the micro-level is difficult because of manifest limitations in the comparability of data. As a result, where cost data for individual treatments have become available, it has usually been unclear whether differences are due to (1) differences in the actual type of service delivered, e.g. in the technologies chosen or the human resources skills mix employed, (2) the intensity with which technologies or personnel are used per treatment episode (e.g. treatment time and length of stay), and (3) differences in input costs (e.g. costs of implant and hourly costs of personnel). The delivery of a seemingly identical service might vary across countries due to variations in (1) the definition of the start and end of a service (e.g. whether rehabilitation following a hip replacement is part of the hospital treatment or seen as a separate service with its own tariff); (2) the technology used (especially regarding the use of innovative and/or expensive technologies, e.g. cemented hip replacement vs costlier uncemented hip replacement); and (3) the accounting treatment of associated services (e.g.

Rising food prices: What should be done?

Abstract: "The sharp increase in food prices over the past couple of years has raised serious concerns about the food and nutrition situation of poor people in developing countries, about inflation, and—in some countries—about civil unrest. Real prices are still below their mid-1970s peak, but they have reached their highest point since that time. Both developing- and developed-country governments have roles to play in bringing prices under control and in helping poor people cope with higher food bills. In 2007 the food price index calculated by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) rose by nearly 40 percent, compared with 9 percent the year before, and in the first months of 2008 prices again increased drastically. Nearly every agricultural commodity is part of this rising price trend. Since 2000—a year of low prices—the wheat price in the international market has more than tripled and maize prices have more than doubled. The price of rice jumped to unprecedented levels in March 2008. Dairy products, meat, poultry, palm oil, and cassava have also experienced price hikes. When adjusted for inflation and the dollar's decline (by reporting in euros, for example), food price increases are smaller but still dramatic, with often serious consequences for the purchasing power of the poor. National governments and international actors are taking various steps to try to minimize the effects of higher international prices for domestic prices and to mitigate impacts on particular groups. Some of these actions are likely to help stabilize and reduce food prices, whereas others may help certain groups at the expense of others or actually make food prices more volatile in the long run and seriously distort trade. What is needed is more effective and coherent action to help the most vulnerable populations cope with the drastic and immediate hikes in their food bills and to help farmers meet the rising demand for agricultural products." from Author's text

Purchasing power at the bottom of the pyramid: differences across geographic regions and income tiers

Abstract: Purpose – The purpose of this article is to examine the purchasing power at the bottom of the pyramid (BOP), i.e. of low‐income consumers.Design/methodology/approach – The authors analyze secondary data on income, population, and expenditure at the BOP from different countries, and apply the buying power index (BPI) methodology to assess the purchasing power of low‐income consumers.Findings – In developing countries, more than 50 percent of the purchasing power resides in the BOP segment. Asia is the region with the greatest purchasing power, relative to Africa, Eastern Europe, and Latin America and Caribbean. On average, the greatest BPI is in the lowest income tier, and consumption concentrates mainly in food, housing, and household goods.Practical implications – The article provides useful information to companies interested in reaching low‐income consumers about the relative purchasing power at the BOP across geographic regions, income tiers, and product categories (or industries).Originality/value – ...

A framework for purchasing transport services in small and medium size enterprises

Abstract: Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to present a framework for purchasing transport services to enable small and medium size enterprises (SMEs) to improve relationships with logistics service providers (LSPs) and enhance their own competitive advantage and profitability. Many SMEs lack competence in purchasing transport services and a subsequent lack of “purchasing power” may cause SMEs to be treated as “order takers” rather than “order makers” by LSPs, who have more leverage in the purchasing process.Design/methodology/approach – This research stemmed from a knowledge transfer research project between the focal company and a university comprising a longitudinal single case study using action research for developing and implementing the framework.Findings – A framework using several tools for purchasing transport services and improving transport performance has emerged from this research. Benefits from using this framework were enjoyed by both the focal company and its LSPs and the focal company improv...

Outlook for Remittance Flows 2008-2010 : Growth Expected to Moderate Significantly, But Flows to Remain Resilient

Abstract: The outlook for remittances for the rest of 2008 and 2009-10 remains as uncertain as the outlook for global growth, oil and non-oil commodity prices, and currency exchange rates. In the past, remittances have been noted to be stable or even counter-cyclical, during an economic downturn in the recipient economy, and resilient in the face of a slowdown in the source country. This time, however, the crisis has affected all countries, creating additional uncertainties.

CONSUMING CLASS: Multilevel Marketers in Neoliberal Mexico

Abstract: Since the 1980s, Mexican leaders have followed other Latin American countries in pursuing neoliberal economic policies designed to stimulate foreign investment, reduce public spending, and promote free trade. Recent studies of indigenous movements and popular protests challenge the idea that these market-based economic reforms enjoy a broad consensus and suggest that elites impose them by force. By turning the focus to middle-class Mexicans, I argue that some nonelite sectors of society avidly welcome the reign of the free market. Although they do not profit directly from unregulated capitalism, the middle class looks to neoliberalism to ensure access to the material markers of class status. The rising popularity of multilevel marketing companies in Mexico, which glorify consumption and celebrate the possibilities of entrepreneurship, demonstrates the appeal of neoliberalism to citizens fearful of diminished purchasing power. By tying consumption to globalized free markets, neoliberalism does not need coercion to win acceptance.

Rising food prices: What should be done? [In Chinese]

Abstract: "The sharp increase in food prices over the past couple of years has raised serious concerns about the food and nutrition situation of poor people in developing countries, about inflation, and—in some countries—about civil unrest. Real prices are still below their mid-1970s peak, but they have reached their highest point since that time. Both developing- and developed-country governments have roles to play in bringing prices under control and in helping poor people cope with higher food bills. In 2007 the food price index calculated by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) rose by nearly 40 percent, compared with 9 percent the year before, and in the first months of 2008 prices again increased drastically. Nearly every agricultural commodity is part of this rising price trend. Since 2000—a year of low prices—the wheat price in the international market has more than tripled and maize prices have more than doubled. The price of rice jumped to unprecedented levels in March 2008. Dairy products, meat, poultry, palm oil, and cassava have also experienced price hikes. When adjusted for inflation and the dollar's decline (by reporting in euros, for example), food price increases are smaller but still dramatic, with often serious consequences for the purchasing power of the poor. National governments and international actors are taking various steps to try to minimize the effects of higher international prices for domestic prices and to mitigate impacts on particular groups. Some of these actions are likely to help stabilize and reduce food prices, whereas others may help certain groups at the expense of others or actually make food prices more volatile in the long run and seriously distort trade. What is needed is more effective and coherent action to help the most vulnerable populations cope with the drastic and immediate hikes in their food bills and to help farmers meet the rising demand for agricultural products." from Author's text

Financial behavior and problems among college students in Malaysia: research and education implication

Abstract: For a majority of students, university attendance is the first time they have experienced financial independence without a parent's supervision. With the expansion of educational services in Malaysia, university or college students have become one of the important consumer market segments, for two reasons. First, this group has expanded purchasing power, with easily available educational loans. Second, this student segment of the population has better potential earnings than any other segment of the population. There has been limited study on financial behavior and problems among Malaysians, especially college students, since the concern over the role of young consumers is relatively new.

Crude Oil Prices and the USD/EUR Exchange Rate

Abstract: This paper investigates the impact of changes in the U.S. dollar/euro exchange rate on crude oil prices. The negative correlation of these two variables is ascribed to five possible channels: on the supply side, the purchasing power of oil export revenues and on the demand side, local prices in non-U.S. dollar regions, investments in crude oil-related asset markets, the monetary policy regime in oil-exporting countries and the efficiency of the currency market. We give evidence that using information on the U.S. dollar/euro exchange rate (and its determinants) significantly improves oil price forecasts. We discuss the possible implications these results might suggest with regard to the stabilization of oil prices or the adjustment of global imbalances.

Scaffolding Social Studies for Global Awareness.

Abstract: Today's students are entering a world increasingly characterized by economic, political, cultural, environmental, and technological interconnectedness (1) More and more, their lives will be shaped by the dynamics of a global economy, technological innovation, environmental change, and changing demographics (2) At the same time, our students, their families and communities are having a profound effect on people and places across the planet The immense purchasing power of Americans shapes global demand for raw materials, services, and products from petroleum and high tech metals to seafood and specialty coffees, from inexpensive textiles and clothing to ever-changing electronics When less than 5 percent of the world's people consume 35 percent of the world's resources, there is a compelling need for young Americans to understand how they both affect and are affected by changes in the world's use of land, water, and other finite resources, the development of new products, transfer of capital, and the daily lives of people across the planet (3) Today's students need to see the world as one interrelated system in which increased demand for particular goods and services, lack of jobs, or acceleration of local religious and ethnic conflicts often lead to regional and global movement of people, increased urbanization, conflicts (over identity, land, and resources), and other societal and political problems (4) Yet how many students sitting in our social studies classes today understand how the world affects them or how they and others in their community and nation are shaping the future of the planet? In the world of 2008, our students need global awareness in order to survive (5) In this article, I share some ways social studies teachers in the United States have worked to scaffold knowledge, skills, and dispositions that over time create global awareness and worldmindedness--habits of the mind that foster knowledge, interest and engagement in global issues, local/global connections, and diverse cultures In my research, I have found that teachers share several assumptions about students becoming globally aware First, there is the assumption that closed-mindedness and parochialism must be addressed if students are to understand the world and its people An open mind is fundamental to acquiring the knowledge that leads to global awareness Second, teachers expect students to master a multi-disciplinary, global body of knowledge about how the world works (global economic, political, environmental, socio-cultural systems) if they are to understand why the world is changing so quickly, how power is wielded, and how individuals or groups affect change Final assumptions rest on relevance and authentic work In teaching students about their connectedness to the larger world, teachers believe they must make use of what is most relevant and meaningful to their students' lives They select resources, research, and assessments to be authentic in applying the knowledge and skills needed in the real world so that students are continually modeling what globally-minded adults would be expected to do (6) Below are three strategies teachers use to scaffold the development of global awareness and engagement: (1) reflection on one's own cultural assumptions and the frameworks in which other people make sense of the world, (2) learning from people and scholarship in other countries, and (3) making connections to engage as citizens of the world These are synergistic as often activities and assessments bring them together or reinforce previous learning with more complex tasks Reflection on Cultural Lenses When students enter our classrooms, they bring with them cultural beliefs and values that shape their view of events, issues, and people under study This "cultural baggage" may have ethnic, racial, gendered, historical, religious, geographic, linguistic, political, environmental, or other complex dimensions …

Access to medicines, BRICS alliances, and collective action.

Abstract: INTRODUCTION On December 6, 2005, shortly before the World Trade Organization ("WTO") Ministerial Conference in Hong Kong, WTO member states agreed to accept a protocol of amendment1 to the Agreement on Trade- Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights ("TRIPs Agreement"). 2 This amendment sought to provide a permanent solution to implement paragraph 6 of the Doha Declaration on the TRIPS Agreement and Public Health ("Doha Declaration").3 If ratified, the new article 3lbis of the TRIPs Agreement will allow countries with insufficient or no manufacturing capacity to import generic versions of on-patent pharmaceuticals.4 To facilitate the supply of essential medicines to countries with insufficient or no manufacturing capacity, article 3lbis(3) creates a special arrangement not only for the affected countries, but also for those belonging to a regional trade agreement.5 Such an arrangement allows less developed countries6 to aggregate their markets to generate the purchasing power needed to make the development of an indigenous pharmaceutical industry attractive.7 It also paves the way for the development of regional supply centers, 8 procurement systems, 9 and patent pools and institutions, while facilitating technical cooperation within the region.10 Unfortunately, because article 31bis specifically requires that least developed countries make up at least half of the membership of any beneficiary regional trade agreement, the provision would benefit only a limited number of less developed countries, predominantly those in Africa.11 Even worse, the interpretation of the provision remains contested within the WTO. While the European Communities "insisted that the [provision] should be limited to what is effectively sub-Saharan Africa," less developed countries in Asia, the Caribbean, and South America embrace a much broader interpretation of article 3lbis(3).12 In light of the limited benefits of the proposed amendment to the TRIPs Agreement, this Article explores how greater collaboration among the BRICS countries (Brazil, Russia, India, China, and South Africa) and between these countries and other less developed countries can promote access to essential medicines in the less developed world. Part I introduces the five BRICS countries by offering a brief discussion of each country in the area of international intellectual property protection. This Part explains why South Africa is included along with the four largest emerging economies. Part II then advances the hypothesis that, if the BRICS countries are willing to join together to form a coalition, it is very likely that the resulting coalition will precipitate a negotiation deadlock similar to the historic stalemate between developed and less developed countries before the adoption of the TRIPs Agreement. This Part explains why these five countries collectively would possess such immense power to stop the push by the European Communities and the United States to ratchet up global intellectual property standards while threatening to grind the intellectual property harmonization process to a halt. Part III questions whether these five countries can build a sustained coalition in light of their very different historical backgrounds; the divergent levels of political, social, economic, and cultural developments; and the welldocumented historical failures for less developed countries to build or maintain effective coalitions. Taking these challenges and potential hurdles into account, this Part contends that it may be more realistic for less developed countries to enter into alliances with one or more of the BRICS countries. Although these partial alliances will not have the same bargaining leverage as a complete BRICS coalition, this Part notes that the resulting alliances will still be quite effective in advancing the interests of less developed countries. Part IV highlights the role that the BRICS coalition or partial BRICS alliances can play in the international intellectual property regime. …

Different Paths to Mass Consumption: Consumer Credit in the United States and West Germany during the 1950s and '60s

Abstract: This article shows how differences in the way Americans and West Germans financed their consumption during the postwar decades underlines differences in social and cultural meanings of consumption. Consumer debt rose rapidly in postwar America. Many Americans came to regard credit as a means of ensuring democratic access to the American dream and to an expanding middle class. The federal government regarded installment credit as a viable way of expanding mass purchasing power and to reinforce a nascent consumer culture built on emulative spending and the rapid diffusion of new goods. By contrast, many West Germans consumers as well as retailers and regulators were more reluctant to embrace consumer credit. Financing consumer goods on credit did not become the hall-mark of new-found middle-class respectability in West-Germany. Rather, to many West German elites and middle-class consumers credit buying retained the stigma of a working class life-style. While the use of consumer credit became more common, it never reached the importance it had across the Atlantic. Far from being a model, the United States stood out as a peculiar case with regard to credit financing and household savings during the postwar period.

Concentration of the insurance industry in selected transition countries of Central and Eastern Europe, 1998–2006

Abstract: Until the beginning of the 1990s the insurance markets of the transition countries of Central and Eastern Europe were highly concentrated, which means that one or only a few state-owned insurance companies operated on the market, with the market share of the leading company higher than 90%. At the beginning of the 1990s private investors entered the majority of economic sectors, including the insurance market. The entry of new companies has led to a decrease in concentration, i.e. to increased competition. This article analyses the dynamics of concentration of the insurance industry, and seeks to determine the impact of the leading insurance company on the development of the insurance market. Furthermore, the article examines the influence of the purchasing power of the population, measured by gross domestic product per capita, on the development of the insurance market and considers the potential scenario of development of the insurance market in the future.

Seniors and Information Technology: Are We Shrinking the Digital Divide?

Abstract: The "digital divide" has been present in the field of information technology (IT) since the inception of the digital computer. Throughout the course of history, one group (or more) has had better access to computer and information technology than another faction. For example: rich versus poor, young versus old, advanced societies versus less developed countries, etc. This disparity has existed for a variety of reasons, among them political, cultural, economic and even class or socioeconomic in nature. This paper examines one particular component of this phenomenon, the "gray divide" pertaining to the use of IT by our elderly, or senior citizens. By utilizing census data and marketing research, we paint a portrait of a vastly underrepresented target market pertaining to IT and IT-related products: our seniors. While the elderly have more assets and disposable income than their younger counterparts, by and large the IT industry is aimed squarely away from this ever-increasing group of consumers. We offer insights into this trend and offer suggestions for future research. INTRODUCTION The information technology phenomenon known as the "digital divide" has been present since the inception of the computer. The divide alludes to the notion of the "haves and have nots" pertaining to ownership, availability, and use of computers and information technology related products and services. This divide can take on many forms: young vs. old, rich vs. poor, developed nations vs. less developed nations, male vs. female, and so on. Ravi and Murthy (2003; 2004) note that the uneven diffusion of internet penetration rates (i.e., the divide) exist in many countries due to technological, political, social, and even cultural reasons. While there is certainly no doubt as to the existence of the divide and the myriad of potential explanations for it, we feel that marketers of IT and IT-related products are missing out on a potential bonanza or windfall of profits by not tailoring their wares to our elderly citizens. This paper examines the current state of the art with relation to the purchasing power of the elderly, IT products and services geared toward (or not toward) them, and the implications of shrinking this digital divide between the young and old. Impetus for the study Many of us take for granted simple computer tasks such as opening a file, cutting and pasting some text, saving a document and e-mailing it forthwith. It is through the wonder of these electronic aides that such global mass communication can progress on a daily basis, as the world becomes more and more digital every day. However, there is a very large and prosperous segment of our society that is all but forgotten in this age of automation and computer calisthenics. This vast subpopulation is known as the elderly, or perhaps more politically correct, seniors or senior citizens. It is indeed ironic that this oft-neglected demographic has, potentially, more assets and disposable income with which to spend on computers and information technology (IT) than any other single group in the USA and around the world. We believe that seniors would both spend more on IT, and use it more often, if they could overcome the many built-in obstacles and issues associated with the effective implementation of these tools in a senior setting. It is important that vendors of these products be aware of their offering's shortcomings if they want to cash in on this potential goldmine of opportunity. BACKGROUND We begin by noting that the elderly population among us continues to represent an increasing proportion of US, as well as worldwide, residents. It is estimated that almost 30% (29.4%) of American citizens are over the age of 50 (U.S. Census Bureau, 2006) and by 2030, one in five Americans (70 million) will be over 65 (U.S. Census Bureau, 2004). Furthermore, the number of people over the age of 65 is increasing worldwide with the fastest growing subgroup those aged 80+ years (Czaja & Lee, 2007). …

How to Win in Emerging Markets

Abstract: Emerging markets in Asia, Latin America and Eastern Europe are delivering some of the strongest revenue and profit growth for global makers of fast-moving consumer goods, despite concerns that lower prices might translate into lower profits. Emerging-market leaders like Coca-Cola, Unilever, Colgate-Palmolive, Groupe Danone and PepsiCo earn 5% to 15% of their total revenues from the three largest emerging markets in Asia ? China, India and Indonesia. The story is similar in Russia and Eastern Europe, where these companies often dominate their target categories and routinely exceed internal corporate benchmarks for profitability. And the trend is likely to continue. The gross domestic product of emerging markets equaled the GDP of advanced nations for the first time in 2006, with much of the growth coming from the ?BRICET? nations ? Brazil, Russia, India, China, Eastern Europe and Turkey. Until the past few years, emerging markets were a relatively low priority for the leading consumer products companies with few exceptions, even though these markets are home to about 85% of the world?s population. The obstacles are still real ? in emerging markets, multinationals compete on unfamiliar terrain dominated by local players, sell at price points below those in their home countries and wrestle with deep-seated social and cultural customs. But with growth slowing in the mature markets of North America, Japan and Western Europe, some consumer goods companies have figured out how to tap into the purchasing power of a new and growing middle class in these emerging markets. The authors provide case studies that show six keys to successfully navigating the uncertain economic environments in developing economies: Enter the mass market to achieve scale in distribution, brand building and operations; localize at every level; develop a ?good enough? cost mentality; think globally but hire locally; make sure local acquisitions have a strong business fit; and organize for emerging markets.

Should access to medicines and TRIPS flexibilities be limited to specific diseases

Abstract: I. DISEASE-BASED LIMITATIONS IN GLOBAL PATENT LAW The health needs of most of the world's population are not well served by patent-based pharmaceutical markets. The poor in low- and medium-income countries (LMICs) lack the financial resources to sustain the attention of global commercial drug companies. After an extensive consultation process, in 2006, the World Health Organization's Commission on Innovation, Intellectual Property and Public Health issued its Report (the WHO CIPIH Report), finding this concern to be significant: In the context of our work one of the important points is that, where the market has very limited purchasing power, as is the case for diseases affecting millions of poor people in developing countries, patents are not a relevant factor or effective in stimulating R&D and bringing new products to market.1 On this issue, the WHO CIPIH Report was preceded by the Access to Medicines movement, an informal coalition of civil society organizations such as Medecins Sans Frontieres, Treatment Action Campaign, Health GAP, Oxfam, and Knowledge Ecology International (formerly the Consumer Project on Technology). These groups and many others identified patents on pharmaceuticals as an inappropriate barrier to access in developing countries.2 They devoted particular attention to the World Trade Organization TRIPS Agreement, which is the minimum global legal standard for pharmaceutical patents.3 In response to challenges about the need for innovation, some have reframed the movement as "Access + Innovation." This article follows in the Access + Innovation genre, attempting to simultaneously address both equitable access and optimal innovation.4 Global patent-based pharmaceutical companies and the United States Trade Representative (USTR) have not been particularly supportive of the Access + Innovation agenda.5 Many attempts have been resisted, even to the point of suing South Africa for its use of unlicensed AIDS drugs in the face of an epidemic.6 In response to sustained global pressure, the companies eventually conceded the case in South Africa, and the WTO members unanimously adopted the Doha Declaration in November 2001. However, several attempts have been made to limit access initiatives and TRIPS flexibilities to particular diseases, namely AIDS, tuberculosis and malaria, or more generally to infectious public health emergencies.7 The primary concern appears to be profit-driven: companies are concerned that any flexibilities for LMICs could lead to price erosion in highincome markets, through physical or virtual arbitrage,8 demands for expanded access, compulsory licensing, or other TRIPS flexibilities.9 These concerns are especially acute for blockbuster drugs treating major chronic diseases. Nothing in the TRIPS Agreement limits compulsory licenses or other flexibilities to a narrow category of diseases. In the Doha Declaration itself, the U.S. requested an explicit limitation to particular diseases, and was the last country to assent to the unanimous resolution.10 The ultimate compromise language states: We recognize the gravity of the public health problems afflicting many developing and least-developed countries, especially those resulting from HIV/AIDS, tuberculosis, malaria and other epidemics.11 At first blush, this appears to be a disease-specific limitation, but the Doha Declaration merely uses the Big 3 to illustrate examples of "national emergency or other circumstances of extreme urgency."12 The Doha Declaration clearly supports WTO Members' rights to utilize TRIPS flexibilities - including compulsory licensure and parallel trade - to "protect public health" without regard to the type of disease:13 Accordingly, while reiterating our commitment to the TRIPS Agreement, we affirm that the Agreement can and should be interpreted and implemented in a manner supportive of WTO Members' right to protect public health and, in particular, to promote access to medicines for all. …

Koncepcja efektów mnożnikowych w wyznaczaniu wpływu przedsiębiorstw na otoczenie społeczno-gospodarcze

Abstract: The subject of this paper is presentation of a method of calculating multiplier effects in order to determine the influence of enterprises on their environment. Emergence or development of economic activity in a given area may bring about an increase in income and employment in many other enterprises, as well as to an increase taxes collected by the local authority. This increase is labelled multiplier effects, and its value enables the evaluation of the enterprise’s activity on the functioning of neighbouring firms.In literature, the most frequently discussed types of multiplier effects are the supply and income effects. The first result from the demand created by the emerging and developing enterprises, which fosters the development of their goods and services suppliers. The second type, the income effects, result from the increase in purchasing power of the inhabitants, owing to the employees’ remuneration, and this means fostering the development of firms that satisfy consumers’ needs. These enterprises create greater demand themselves, thus triggering new cycles of multiplier effects.The calculation of created workplaces for the supply effects was conducted by using a designed algorithm. It allows calculating the new workplaces in the supplier firms on the bases of data concerning income of enterprises, participation of supply in the revenue, and employment-related costs. The growth of employment and payment is correlated with the increase in the income multiplier effects, generated by single enterprises. This work presents a scheme for calculation of new workplaces created as a result of new investments.

The Euro Changeover in the Slovak Republic

Abstract: In January 2009, the Slovak Republic will adopt the euro and become the 16th member of the euro area. This paper investigates the implications of euro adoption in the Slovak Republic for inflation and interest rates with an attempt to quantify their likely size as well as their consequences for the general public. The empirical analysis – which makes use of the experience of the first-wave euro area countries – suggests that the cash changeover will most likely be associated with a moderate increase in consumer prices, estimated at around 0.3%. Policy measures to reduce this effect include public information campaigns, the conversion of publicly administered prices with the exact conversion rate and the reduction of administrative obstacles to increase supply. The minor purchasing power losses associated with this price increase will not be evenly distributed across the population with higher income households and families with children expected to be harder hit than others. Even though the exchange rate vis-a-vis the euro area will be irrevocably fixed, past appreciations of the koruna are still likely to pass-through to some downward pressure on consumer prices, with the cumulative effect estimated to amount to around 1.5% up to mid-2009. In the longer run, the Balassa-Samuelson effect and other factors affecting catch-up economies may raise the Slovak inflation rate above the euro area level. As capital markets have already fully priced in euro membership, no immediate effect on short- and long-term interest rates in the wholesale markets is to be expected for January 2009. In the longer run, euro adoption can be expected to foster financial integration, thereby leading to a convergence of Slovak retail interest rates towards euro area levels. This reduction in retail interest rates will benefit the general public with mortgage borrowers likely to reap the largest benefits. A potential risk of low real interest rates is the emergence of a boom-bust cycle; prudent fiscal policy and further structural reforms, including enhanced competition, would help to counter any such developments.

Purchasing power parity

Abstract: Contents:AcknowledgementsIntroduction Meher Manzur and Felix Chan1. Gustav Cassel (1916), 'The Present Situation of The Foreign Exchanges'2. Gustav Cassel (1920), 'Further Observations on the World's Monetary Problem'3. Yihui Lan (2002), 'The Explosion of Purchasing Power Parity'4. Bela Balassa (1964), 'The Purchasing-Power Parity Doctrine: A Reappraisal'5. Paul A. Samuelson (1964), 'Theoretical Notes on Trade Problems'6. Peter Isard (1977), 'How Far Can We Push the "Law of One Price"?'7. Jacob A. Frenkel (1978), 'Purchasing Power Parity: Doctrinal Perspective and Evidence from the 1920s'8. Michael Adler and Bruce Lehman (1983), 'Deviations from Purchasing Power Parity in the Long Run'9. Dean Corbae and Sam Ouliaris (1988), 'Cointegration and Tests of Purchasing Power Parity'10. Craig S. Hakkio (1984), 'A Re-examination of Purchasing Power Parity: A Multi-Country and Multi-Period Study'11. Niso Abuaf and Philippe Jorion (1990), 'Purchasing Power Parity in the Long Run'12. Meher Manzur (1990), 'An International Comparison of Prices and Exchange Rates: A New Test of Purchasing Power Parity' 13. James R. Lothian and Mark P. Taylor (1996), 'Real Exchange Rate Behavior: The Recent Float from the Perspective of the Past Two Centuries'14. Jeffrey A. Frankel and Andrew K. Rose (1996), 'A Panel Project on Purchasing Power Parity: Mean Reversion Within and Between Countries'15. Panos Michael, A. Robert Nobay and David A. Peel (1997), 'Transactions Costs and Nonlinear Adjustment in Real Exchange Rates: An Empirical Investigation'16. Mark P. Taylor and Lucio Sarno (1998), 'The Behaviour of Real Exchange Rates during the Post-Bretton Woods Period'17. Charles Engel (2000), 'Long-Run PPP May Not Hold After All'18. Li Lian Ong (1997), 'Burgernomics: The Economics of the Big Mac Standard'19. Kenneth Rogoff (1996), 'The Purchasing Power Parity Puzzle'Name Index

Is China a Threat to the U.s. Economy

Abstract: : The rise of China from a poor, stagnant country to a major economic power within a time span of only 28 years is often described by analysts as one of the greatest economic success stories in modern times. From 1979 (when economic reforms were first introduced) to 2006, China's real gross domestic product (GDP) grew at an average annual rate of 9.7%, the size of its economy increased over 11-fold, its real per capita GDP grew over 8-fold, and its world ranking for total trade rose from 27th to 3rd. By some measurements, China has become the world's second largest economy, and it could be the largest within a decade. China's economic rise has led to a substantial growth in U.S.-China economic relations. Total trade between the two countries has surged from $4.9 billion in 1980 to an estimated $343 billion in 2006. For the United States, China is now its second largest trading partner, its fourth-largest export market, and its second-largest source of imports. Inexpensive Chinese imports have increased the purchasing power of U.S. consumers. Many U.S. companies have extensive manufacturing operations in China in order to sell their products in the booming Chinese market and to take advantage of low-cost labor for exported goods. China's purchases of U.S. Treasury securities have funded federal deficits and helped keep U.S. interest rates relatively low. Despite the perceived threat from China, the U.S. economy has recently maintained full employment and robust economic growth. To date, the growth in Chinese exports appears to have come partly at the expense of Asian competitors. However, the emergence of China as a major economic superpower has raised concern among many U.S. policymakers. Some express concern that China will overtake the United States as the world's largest trade economy in a few years and as the world's largest economy within the next two decades.

e-governance initiatives in Bangladesh

Abstract: In today's world, Information and Communication Technology (ICT) has tremendous impact on socio-economic livelihood of people of the country. Government functions are the most profound areas where ICT can play a pivotal role in fostering and ameliorating citizen centric services. Adaptation of e-Governance is a key for smart governance and making information technology (IT) relevant to ordinary citizens in Bangladesh where a large proportion of the population suffers from digital divide. e-Governance will allow ordinary people to interact with the government at various levels on matters of governance to provide inputs for decision makers. To achieve these desired objectives the journey for establishing e-Governance system in Bangladesh faced challenges that can be summarized by three A's: Access, Awareness and Applications. Being a developing country, it was always a challenge for the country to finance capital intensive endeavours like access backbones and communication infrastructure. Also, newer ICT tools remained beyond the purchasing power of most Bangladeshis. With the proliferation of mobile, while the communication infrastructure challenge is somewhat resolved, the issues of awareness among the public servants and citizen are still low. Such awareness (or lack of it) among middle and senior public officials remained a particular of concern in the context of establishing e-Governance.This paper presents a baseline assessment of existing capacity, needs and options for implementing e-Governance in Bangladesh.

Food production vs. biomass export vs. land-use change: a cge analysis for argentina

Abstract: World trade in biomass is likely to increase in the years up to 2020 as imports are required to meet the demand created (directly or indirectly) by policy measures such as the EU Biofuels Directive. This paper assesses the macroeconomic consequences such large-scale trade for the exporting country, using a computable general equilibrium (CGE) model of Argentina. Given an exogenous increase in world prices for biomass, the model finds that production shifts towards biomass and away from other sectors. Implications of this include changes in the relative prices of goods and the purchasing power of labour. Price rises are largest in land-intensive sectors of the economy and the overall purchasing power of labour is adversely affected since biomass sectors are among the least labour intensive. When expansion of the agricultural area is permitted, relative price changes become less pronounced. However, expansion of the agricultural frontier may have adverse environmental impacts, including lowering the net GHG savings attributable to the biomass produced.

Making Work Pay Enough: A Decent Standard of Living for Working Families

Abstract: One-third of America's families with children are low income, meaning their incomes fall below twice the federal poverty level. Although four in five of these families work, many don't bring home enough to cover the everyday costs of living. In this essay, Acs and Turner outline their proposals to enhance low-income families' purchasing power and reduce unusually high housing costs through a package of reforms and policy initiatives that tackle both the income side and expenditure side of family budgets.