Showing papers on "Pyruvate kinase published in 2010"
TL;DR: A pathway that regulates an alternative splicing event required for tumour cell proliferation is defined, establishing a relevance to cancer, and it is demonstrated that human gliomas overexpress c-Myc, PTB, hnRNPA1 and hn RNPA2 in a manner that correlates with PKM2 expression.
Abstract: When oxygen is abundant, quiescent cells efficiently extract energy from glucose primarily by oxidative phosphorylation, whereas under the same conditions tumour cells consume glucose more avidly, converting it to lactate. This long-observed phenomenon is known as aerobic glycolysis, and is important for cell growth. Because aerobic glycolysis is only useful to growing cells, it is tightly regulated in a proliferation-linked manner. In mammals, this is partly achieved through control of pyruvate kinase isoform expression. The embryonic pyruvate kinase isoform, PKM2, is almost universally re-expressed in cancer, and promotes aerobic glycolysis, whereas the adult isoform, PKM1, promotes oxidative phosphorylation. These two isoforms result from mutually exclusive alternative splicing of the PKM pre-mRNA, reflecting inclusion of either exon 9 (PKM1) or exon 10 (PKM2). Here we show that three heterogeneous nuclear ribonucleoprotein (hnRNP) proteins, polypyrimidine tract binding protein (PTB, also known as hnRNPI), hnRNPA1 and hnRNPA2, bind repressively to sequences flanking exon 9, resulting in exon 10 inclusion. We also demonstrate that the oncogenic transcription factor c-Myc upregulates transcription of PTB, hnRNPA1 and hnRNPA2, ensuring a high PKM2/PKM1 ratio. Establishing a relevance to cancer, we show that human gliomas overexpress c-Myc, PTB, hnRNPA1 and hnRNPA2 in a manner that correlates with PKM2 expression. Our results thus define a pathway that regulates an alternative splicing event required for tumour cell proliferation.
966 citations
TL;DR: It is demonstrated that phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP), the substrate for pyruVate kinase in cells, can act as a phosphate donor in mammalian cells because PEP participates in the phosphorylation of the glycolytic enzyme phosphoglycerate mutase (PGAM1) in PKM2-expressing cells.
Abstract: Proliferating cells, including cancer cells, require altered metabolism to efficiently incorporate nutrients such as glucose into biomass. The M2 isoform of pyruvate kinase (PKM2) promotes the metabolism of glucose by aerobic glycolysis and contributes to anabolic metabolism. Paradoxically, decreased pyruvate kinase enzyme activity accompanies the expression of PKM2 in rapidly dividing cancer cells and tissues. We demonstrate that phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP), the substrate for pyruvate kinase in cells, can act as a phosphate donor in mammalian cells because PEP participates in the phosphorylation of the glycolytic enzyme phosphoglycerate mutase (PGAM1) in PKM2-expressing cells. We used mass spectrometry to show that the phosphate from PEP is transferred to the catalytic histidine (His11) on human PGAM1. This reaction occurred at physiological concentrations of PEP and produced pyruvate in the absence of PKM2 activity. The presence of histidine-phosphorylated PGAM1 correlated with the expression of PKM2 in cancer cell lines and tumor tissues. Thus, decreased pyruvate kinase activity in PKM2-expressing cells allows PEP-dependent histidine phosphorylation of PGAM1 and may provide an alternate glycolytic pathway that decouples adenosine triphosphate production from PEP-mediated phosphotransfer, allowing for the high rate of glycolysis to support the anabolic metabolism observed in many proliferating cells.
567 citations
01 Sep 2010
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors demonstrate that phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP) can act as a phosphate donor in mammalian cells because PEP participates in the phosphorylation of the glycolytic enzyme phosphoglycerate mutase (PGAM1) in PKM2-expressing cells.
Abstract: Proliferating cells, including cancer cells, require altered metabolism to efficiently incorporate nutrients such as glucose into biomass. The M2 isoform of pyruvate kinase (PKM2) promotes the metabolism of glucose by aerobic glycolysis and contributes to anabolic metabolism. Paradoxically, decreased pyruvate kinase enzyme activity accompanies the expression of PKM2 in rapidly dividing cancer cells and tissues. We demonstrate that phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP), the substrate for pyruvate kinase in cells, can act as a phosphate donor in mammalian cells because PEP participates in the phosphorylation of the glycolytic enzyme phosphoglycerate mutase (PGAM1) in PKM2-expressing cells. We used mass spectrometry to show that the phosphate from PEP is transferred to the catalytic histidine (His11) on human PGAM1. This reaction occurred at physiological concentrations of PEP and produced pyruvate in the absence of PKM2 activity. The presence of histidine-phosphorylated PGAM1 correlated with the expression of PKM2 in cancer cell lines and tumor tissues. Thus, decreased pyruvate kinase activity in PKM2-expressing cells allows PEP-dependent histidine phosphorylation of PGAM1 and may provide an alternate glycolytic pathway that decouples adenosine triphosphate production from PEP-mediated phosphotransfer, allowing for the high rate of glycolysis to support the anabolic metabolism observed in many proliferating cells.
460 citations
TL;DR: It is shown that the M1-specific exon is actively repressed in cancer-cell lines—although some M1 mRNA is expressed in cell lines derived from brain tumors—and that the related splicing repressors hnRNP A1 and A2, as well as the polypyrimidine-tract-binding protein PTB contribute to this control.
Abstract: Cancer cells preferentially metabolize glucose by aerobic glycolysis, characterized by increased lactate production. This distinctive metabolism involves expression of the embryonic M2 isozyme of pyruvate kinase, in contrast to the M1 isozyme normally expressed in differentiated cells, and it confers a proliferative advantage to tumor cells. The M1 and M2 pyruvate-kinase isozymes are expressed from a single gene through alternative splicing of a pair of mutually exclusive exons. We measured the expression of M1 and M2 mRNA and protein isoforms in mouse tissues, tumor cell lines, and during terminal differentiation of muscle cells, and show that alternative splicing regulation is sufficient to account for the levels of expressed protein isoforms. We further show that the M1-specific exon is actively repressed in cancer-cell lines—although some M1 mRNA is expressed in cell lines derived from brain tumors—and demonstrate that the related splicing repressors hnRNP A1 and A2, as well as the polypyrimidine-tract-binding protein PTB, contribute to this control. Downregulation of these splicing repressors in cancer-cell lines using shRNAs rescues M1 isoform expression and decreases the extent of lactate production. These findings extend the links between alternative splicing and cancer, and begin to define some of the factors responsible for the switch to aerobic glycolysis.
368 citations
TL;DR: A review of the involvement of PKM2 in various physiological pathways with possible functional implications is provided in this article, where a variety of pathways, protein-protein interactions, and nuclear transport suggests its potential to perform multiple nonglycolytic functions with diverse implications.
Abstract: Glycolysis, a central metabolic pathway, harbors evolutionary conserved enzymes that modulate and potentially shift the cellular metabolism on requirement. Pyruvate kinase, which catalyzes the last but rate-limiting step of glycolysis, is expressed in four isozymic forms, depending on the tissue requirement. M2 isoform (PKM2) is exclusively expressed in embryonic and adult dividing/tumor cells. This tetrameric allosterically regulated isoform is intrinsically designed to downregulate its activity by subunit dissociation (into dimer), which results in partial inhibition of glycolysis at the last step. This accumulates all upstream glycolytic intermediates as an anabolic feed for synthesis of lipids and nucleic acids, whereas reassociation of PKM2 into active tetramer replenishes the normal catabolism as a feedback after cell division. In addition, involvement of this enzyme in a variety of pathways, protein–protein interactions, and nuclear transport suggests its potential to perform multiple nonglycolytic functions with diverse implications, although multidimensional role of this protein is as yet not fully explored. This review aims to provide an overview of the involvement of PKM2 in various physiological pathways with possible functional implications.
235 citations
TL;DR: The data suggest that isoform selective inhibition of PKM2 with small molecules is feasible and support the hypothesis that inhibition of glucose metabolism in cancer cells is a viable strategy to treat human malignancy.
232 citations
TL;DR: A recent study shows that the alternative splicing event is controlled by heterogeneous nuclear ribonucleoprotein (hnRNP) family members hnRNPA1, hn RNPA2, and polypyrimidine tract binding protein (PTB; also known as hnRNAPI).
Abstract: Unlike normal cells, which metabolize glucose by oxidative phosphorylation for efficient energy production, tumor cells preferentially metabolize glucose by aerobic glycolysis, which produces less energy but facilitates the incorporation of more glycolytic metabolites into the biomass needed for rapid proliferation. The metabolic shift from oxidative phosphorylation to aerobic glycolysis is partly achieved by a switch in the splice isoforms of the glycolytic enzyme pyruvate kinase. Although normal cells express the pyruvate kinase M1 isoform (PKM1), tumor cells predominantly express the M2 isoform (PKM2). Switching from PKM1 to PKM2 promotes aerobic glycolysis and provides a selective advantage for tumor formation. The PKM1/M2 isoforms are generated through alternative splicing of two mutually exclusive exons. A recent study shows that the alternative splicing event is controlled by heterogeneous nuclear ribonucleoprotein (hnRNP) family members hnRNPA1, hnRNPA2, and polypyrimidine tract binding protein (PTB; also known as hnRNPI). These findings not only provide additional evidence that alternative splicing plays an important role in tumorigenesis, but also shed light on the molecular mechanism by which hnRNP proteins regulate cell proliferation in cancer.
200 citations
TL;DR: The discovery of a series of substituted N,N'-diarylsulfonamides as activators of PKM2 is detailed, representing first-in-class activators in cancer cells yielding a novel antiproliferation strategy.
Abstract: The metabolism of cancer cells is altered to support rapid proliferation. Pharmacological activators of a tumor cell specific pyruvate kinase isozyme (PKM2) may be an approach for altering the classic Warburg effect characteristic of aberrant metabolism in cancer cells yielding a novel antiproliferation strategy. In this manuscript, we detail the discovery of a series of substituted N,N′-diarylsulfonamides as activators of PKM2. The synthesis of numerous analogues and the evaluation of structure−activity relationships are presented as well as assessments of mechanism and selectivity. Several agents are found that have good potencies and appropriate solubility for use as chemical probes of PKM2 including 55 (AC50 = 43 nM, maximum response = 84%; solubility = 7.3 μg/mL), 56 (AC50 = 99 nM, maximum response = 84%; solubility = 5.7 μg/mL), and 58 (AC50 = 38 nM, maximum response = 82%; solubility = 51.2 μg/mL). The small molecules described here represent first-in-class activators of PKM2
167 citations
TL;DR: Pyruvate dehydrogenase kinase inhibition attenuates glycolysis and facilitates mitochondrial oxidative phosphorylation, leading to reduced growth of colorectal cancer cells but not of non-cancerous cells.
Abstract: Colorectal cancer is the third most common cancer in the world and the fourth leading cause of cancer-related death (Shike et al, 1990). In 2007 colorectal cancer accounted for 17.1 deaths per 100 000 persons in the United Kingdom (UK Bowel Cancer Statistics, 2009). Despite recent advances, the prognosis of patients with advanced and metastatic colorectal cancer remains poor. Targeting tumour metabolism for cancer therapy is a rapidly developing area (Pan and Mak, 2007). Early observations concerning the metabolic differences between cancer and normal cells were made by Otto Warburg, who showed that cancer cells are inherently dependent on glycolysis for production of chemical energy (Warburg, 1956). There is now mounting evidence that this increased glycolysis results from the influence of multiple molecular pathways, including adaptive responses to the hypoxic tumour microenvironment, oncogenic signalling, and mitochondrial dysfunction (Gatenby and Gillies, 2004; Gillies and Gatenby, 2007; Wu et al, 2007). The glycolytic phenotype offers growth advantages to cancer cells by resisting apoptosis, and facilitating tumour spread and metastasis (Yeluri et al, 2009).
A key regulator of cellular metabolism is pyruvate dehydrogenase (PDH). Pyruvate dehydrogenase converts pyruvate, produced from glycolysis, to acetyl-CoA, which is oxidised in the tricarboxylic acid cycle within mitochondria. Pyruvate dehydrogenase activity is tightly regulated by inhibitory phosphorylation by pyruvate dehydrogenase kinase (PDK). Phosphorylation occurs on the E1α sub-unit of PDH (PDHE1α) at three sites: Ser232, Ser293, and Ser300 (Rardin et al, 2009). Dichloroacetate (DCA) is an inhibitor of all the four isoenzymes of PDK(1–4) (Stacpoole, 1989), and has recently been shown to reduce growth of lung, endometrial, and breast cancer cell lines (Bonnet et al, 2007; Wong et al, 2008; Sun et al, 2009). It has been reported to reduce growth of these cancer cells mainly by reducing inhibitory phosphorylation of PDH, thereby promoting mitochondrial oxidative phosphorylation and inducing apoptosis through mitochondrial, NFAT-Kv 1.5, and p53 upregulated modulator of apoptosis (PUMA)-mediated pathways.
Colorectal cancer cells have been found to undergo increased glycolysis (Bi et al, 2006), and the tumour microenvironment has been found to be hypoxic and acidotic, mainly due to poorly developed blood supply (Dewhirst et al, 1989; Milosevic et al, 2004). We have previously shown that this is especially true for the more aggressive phenotype (Thorn et al, 2009), and expression of the important markers of hypoxia is increased in colorectal cancer especially at the invasive margin (Rajaganeshan et al, 2008, 2009). The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of DCA on the growth of colorectal cancer cells in an attempt to examine PDK inhibition as a novel therapeutic strategy against colorectal cancer.
164 citations
TL;DR: With the high margin of safety of CND, it can be developed as a potential therapeutic candidate for the treatment of diabetes and shown to increase the glucose uptake through glucose transporter (GLUT4) translocation in peripheral tissues.
162 citations
TL;DR: Although CP is relatively subtle disorder, this study reveals a striking regulatory role for HIF on metabolism during exercise in humans, which has significant implications for the development of therapeutic approaches targeting the HIF pathway.
Abstract: The hypoxia-inducible factor (HIF) family of transcription factors directs a coordinated cellular response to hypoxia that includes the transcriptional regulation of a number of metabolic enzymes. Chuvash polycythemia (CP) is an autosomal recessive human disorder in which the regulatory degradation of HIF is impaired, resulting in elevated levels of HIF at normal oxygen tensions. Apart from the polycythemia, CP patients have marked abnormalities of cardiopulmonary function. No studies of integrated metabolic function have been reported. Here we describe the response of these patients to a series of metabolic stresses: exercise of a large muscle mass on a cycle ergometer, exercise of a small muscle mass (calf muscle) which allowed noninvasive in vivo assessments of muscle metabolism using 31P magnetic resonance spectroscopy, and a standard meal tolerance test. During exercise, CP patients had early and marked phosphocreatine depletion and acidosis in skeletal muscle, greater accumulation of lactate in blood, and reduced maximum exercise capacities. Muscle biopsy specimens from CP patients showed elevated levels of transcript for pyruvate dehydrogenase kinase, phosphofructokinase, and muscle pyruvate kinase. In cell culture, a range of experimental manipulations have been used to study the effects of HIF on cellular metabolism. However, these approaches provide no potential to investigate integrated responses at the level of the whole organism. Although CP is relatively subtle disorder, our study now reveals a striking regulatory role for HIF on metabolism during exercise in humans. These findings have significant implications for the development of therapeutic approaches targeting the HIF pathway.
TL;DR: It is demonstrated that despite reduction in total glycolytic capacity, stem cell cardiogenesis engages a significant transcriptome, proteome, as well as enzymatic and topological rearrangement in the proximal, medial, and distal modules of the glyCOlytic pathway.
TL;DR: The mechanistic basis for DCA anti‐cancer activity was re‐evaluated in vitro using biochemical, cellular and proteomic approaches and the ability of DCA to target cell lines with defects in the electron transport chain and to synergize with existing chemotherapeutics supports further preclinical development.
Abstract: The "Warburg effect," also termed aerobic glycolysis, describes the increased reliance of cancer cells on glycolysis for ATP production, even in the presence of oxygen. Consequently, there is continued interest in inhibitors of glycolysis as cancer therapeutics. One example is dichloroacetate (DCA), a pyruvate mimetic that stimulates oxidative phosphorylation through inhibition of pyruvate dehydrogenase kinase. In this study, the mechanistic basis for DCA anti-cancer activity was re-evaluated in vitro using biochemical, cellular and proteomic approaches. Results demonstrated that DCA is relatively inactive (IC(50) ≥ 17 mM, 48 hr), induces apoptosis only at high concentrations (≥ 25 mM, 48 hr) and is not cancer cell selective. Subsequent 2D-PAGE proteomic analysis confirmed DCA-induced growth suppression without apoptosis induction. Furthermore, DCA depolarizes mitochondria and promotes reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation in all cell types. However, DCA was found to have selective activity against rho(0) cells [mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) deficient] and to synergize with 2-deoxyglucose in complex IV deficient HCT116 p53(-/-) cells. DCA also synergized in vitro with cisplatin and topotecan, two antineoplastic agents known to damage mitochondrial DNA. These data suggest that in cells "hardwired" to selectively utilize glycolysis for ATP generation (e.g., through mtDNA mutations), the ability of DCA to force oxidative phosphorylation confers selective toxicity. In conclusion, although we provide a mechanism distinct from that reported previously, the ability of DCA to target cell lines with defects in the electron transport chain and to synergize with existing chemotherapeutics supports further preclinical development.
TL;DR: This study is the first to demonstrate an important role of amino acids in combination with insulin in the molecular regulation of hepatic metabolism.
Abstract: Amino acids are considered to be regulators of metabolism in several species, and increasing importance has been accorded to the role of amino acids as signalling molecules regulating protein synthesis through the activation of the TOR transduction pathway. Using rainbow trout hepatocytes, we examined the ability of amino acids to regulate hepatic metabolism-related gene expression either alone or together with insulin, and the possible involvement of TOR. We demonstrated that amino acids alone regulate expression of several genes, including glucose-6-phosphatase, phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase, pyruvate kinase, 6-phospho-fructo-1-kinase and serine dehydratase, through an unknown molecular pathway that is independent of TOR activation. When insulin and amino acids were added together, a different pattern of regulation was observed that depended upon activation of the TOR pathway. This pattern included a dramatic up-regulation of lipogenic (fatty acid synthase, ATP-citrate lyase and sterol responsive element binding protein 1) and glycolytic (glucokinase, 6-phospho-fructo-1-kinase and pyruvate kinase) genes in a TOR-dependent manner. Regarding gluconeogenesis genes, only glucose-6-phosphatase was inhibited in a TOR-dependent manner by combination of insulin and amino acids and not by amino acids alone. This study is the first to demonstrate an important role of amino acids in combination with insulin in the molecular regulation of hepatic metabolism.
TL;DR: These agents represent the second reported chemotype for activation of PKM2 based upon a substituted thieno-pyrrole-based scaffold and are described as a potential strategy for returning cancer cells to a metabolic state characteristic of normal cells.
TL;DR: It is concluded that glycolytic efficiency, which is important for the survival of cancer cells, depends primarily on the preferential expression of PFK-L over the M and P isoforms.
TL;DR: It is concluded that high matrix ATP/ADP ratios keep DeltaPsi(m) at low values by the allosteric ATP-inhibition of CcO, thus preventing the generation of reactive oxygen species which could generate degenerative diseases.
TL;DR: The results presented here illustrate how conformational changes coupled with effector binding correlate with loss of flexibility and increase in thermal stability providing a general mechanism for allosteric control.
TL;DR: It is found that PEP is essential for multiple steps in plant development, reflecting the central importance of PEP in multiple plant metabolic pathways, including synthesis of aromatic amino acids, lipids, flavonoids, and lignin.
Abstract: Restriction of phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP) supply to plastids causes lethality of female and male gametophytes in Arabidopsis thaliana defective in both a phosphoenolpyruvate/phosphate translocator (PPT) of the inner envelope membrane and the plastid-localized enolase (ENO1) involved in glycolytic PEP provision. Homozygous double mutants of cue1 (defective in PPT1) and eno1 could not be obtained, and homozygous cue1 heterozygous eno1 mutants [cue1/eno1(+/−)] exhibited retarded vegetative growth, disturbed flower development, and up to 80% seed abortion. The phenotypes of diminished oil in seeds, reduced flavonoids and aromatic amino acids in flowers, compromised lignin biosynthesis in stems, and aberrant exine formation in pollen indicate that cue1/eno1(+/−) disrupts multiple pathways. While diminished fatty acid biosynthesis from PEP via plastidial pyruvate kinase appears to affect seed abortion, a restriction in the shikimate pathway affects formation of sporopollonin in the tapetum and lignin in the stem. Vegetative parts of cue1/eno1(+/−) contained increased free amino acids and jasmonic acid but had normal wax biosynthesis. ENO1 overexpression in cue1 rescued the leaf and root phenotypes, restored photosynthetic capacity, and improved seed yield and oil contents. In chloroplasts, ENO1 might be the only enzyme missing for a complete plastidic glycolysis.
TL;DR: NG (100%) starch diet significantly induced more the enzyme activities of amino acid metabolism, gluconeogenesis, and TCA cycle, whereas partial or total replacement of raw starch by gelatinized starch increased the glycolytic enzyme activity.
Abstract: A 60-day experiment was conducted to study the effect of dietary gelatinized (G) and non-gelatinized (NG) starch on the key metabolic enzymes of glycolysis (hexokinase, glucokinase, pyruvate kinase, and lactate dehydrogenase), gluconeogenesis (glucose-6 phosphatase and fructose-1,6 bisphosphatase), protein metabolism (aspartate amino transferase and alanine amino transferase), and TCA cycle (malate dehydrogenase) in Labeo rohita juveniles. In the analysis, 234 juveniles (2.53 ± 0.04 g) were randomly distributed into six treatment groups each with three replicates. Six semi-purified diets containing NG and G cornstarch, each at six levels of inclusion (0, 20, 40, 60, 80, and 100) were prepared viz., T1 (100% NG, 0% G starch), T2 (80% NG, 20% G starch), T3 (60% NG, 40% G starch), T4 (40% NG, 60% G starch), T5 (20% NG, 80% G starch), and T6 (0% NG, 100% G starch). Dietary G:NG starch ratio had a significant (P 0.05) influenced by the type of dietary starch. The alanine amino transferase activity in both liver and muscle showed an increasing trend with the decrease in the dietary G level. The liver and muscle malate dehydrogenase activities were lowest in the T6 group and highest in the T1 group. Results suggest that NG (100%) starch diet significantly induced more the enzyme activities of amino acid metabolism, gluconeogenesis, and TCA cycle, whereas partial or total replacement of raw starch by gelatinized starch increased the glycolytic enzyme activity.
TL;DR: The observed changes represented intrinsic effects of pyk deletion on the physiology of C. glutamicum and suggested an enhanced overall flux of the anaplerotic pathway from PEP to oxaloacetic acid in the mutant.
TL;DR: Analysis and reverse engineering of two independently evolved strains showed that single point mutations in pyruvate kinase were sufficient to enable the use of PEPCK as the sole anaplerotic enzyme, which may prove crucial for engineering of efficient and low-cost anaerobic production of C4 dicarboxylic acids in S. cerevisiae.
Abstract: Pyruvate carboxylase is the sole anaplerotic enzyme in glucose-grown cultures of wild-type Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Pyruvate carboxylase-negative (Pyc–) S. cerevisiae strains cannot grow on glucose unless media are supplemented with C4 compounds, such as aspartic acid. In several succinate-producing prokaryotes, phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase (PEPCK) fulfills this anaplerotic role. However, the S. cerevisiae PEPCK encoded by PCK1 is repressed by glucose and is considered to have a purely decarboxylating and gluconeogenic function. This study investigates whether and under which conditions PEPCK can replace the anaplerotic function of pyruvate carboxylase in S. cerevisiae. Pyc– S. cerevisiae strains constitutively overexpressing the PEPCK either from S. cerevisiae or from Actinobacillus succinogenes did not grow on glucose as the sole carbon source. However, evolutionary engineering yielded mutants able to grow on glucose as the sole carbon source at a maximum specific growth rate of ca. 0.14 h–1, one-half that of the (pyruvate carboxylase-positive) reference strain grown under the same conditions. Growth was dependent on high carbon dioxide concentrations, indicating that the reaction catalyzed by PEPCK operates near thermodynamic equilibrium. Analysis and reverse engineering of two independently evolved strains showed that single point mutations in pyruvate kinase, which competes with PEPCK for phosphoenolpyruvate, were sufficient to enable the use of PEPCK as the sole anaplerotic enzyme. The PEPCK reaction produces one ATP per carboxylation event, whereas the original route through pyruvate kinase and pyruvate carboxylase is ATP neutral. This increased ATP yield may prove crucial for engineering of efficient and low-cost anaerobic production of C4 dicarboxylic acids in S. cerevisiae.
TL;DR: Targetron-mediated gene disruption demonstrated that MRSA pyruvate kinase is essential for S. aureus growth and survival, suggesting that this protein may be a potential drug target and new insights are yielded into MRSA PK function and mode of allosteric regulation.
Abstract: Novel antimicrobial targets are urgently needed to overcome rising antibiotic resistance of important human pathogens including methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA). Here we report the essentiality and kinetic properties of MRSA pyruvate kinase (PK). Targetron-mediated gene disruption demonstrated PK is essential for S. aureus growth and survival, suggesting that this protein may be a potential drug target. The presence of the pfk (6-phosphofructokinase)-pyk operon in MRSA252, and the nonessential nature of PFK shown by targetron, further emphasized the essential role of PK in cell viability. The importance of PK in bacterial growth was confirmed by showing that its enzymatic activity peaked during the logarithmic phase of S. aureus growth. PK from Staphylococcus and several other species of bacteria have an extra C-terminal domain (CT) containing a phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP) binding motif. To elucidate the possible structure and function of this sequence, the quaternary structures and kinetic properties of the full-length MRSA PK and truncated MRSA PK lacking the CT domain were characterized. Our results showed that (1) MRSA PK is an allosteric enzyme with homotetramer architecture activated by AMP or ribose 5-phosphate (R5P), but not by fructose 1,6-bisphosphate (FBP), which suggests a different mode of allosteric regulation when compared with human isozymes, (2) the CT domain is not required for the tetramerization of the enzyme; homotetramerization occurred in a truncated PK lacking the domain, (3) truncated enzyme exhibited high affinity toward both PEP and ADP and exhibited hyperbolic kinetics toward PEP in the presence of activators (AMP and R5P) consistent with kinetic properties of full-length enzyme, indicating that the CT domain is not required for substrate binding or allosteric regulation observed in the holoenzyme, (4) the kinetic efficiency (k(cat)/S(0.5)) of truncated enzyme was decreased by 24- and 16-fold, in ligand-free state, toward PEP and ADP, respectively, but was restored by 3-fold in AMP-bound state, suggesting that the sequence containing the CT domain (Gly(473)-Leu(585)) plays a substantial role in enzyme activity and comformational stability, and (5) full-length MRSA PK activity was stimulated at low concentrations of ATP (e.g., 1 mM) and inhibited by inorganic phosphate and high concentrations of FBP (10 mM) and ATP (e.g., >2.5 mM), whereas for truncated enzyme, stimulation at low concentrations of ATP was lost. These findings suggest that the CT domain is involved in maintaining the specificity of allosteric regulation of MRSA PK by AMP, R5P, and ATP. The CT extension also encodes a protein domain with homology to enzyme I of the Escherichia coli sugar-PTS system, suggesting that MRSA PK may also exert an important regulatory role in sugar transport metabolism. These findings yield new insights into MRSA PK function and mode of allosteric regulation which may aid in the development of clinically important drugs targeting this enzyme and further define the role of the extra C-terminal domain in modulating the enzyme's activity.
TL;DR: The hypothesis that glucose metabolic fate changes according to developmental embryonic stages is supported and a role for GSK3 in glycogen balance/distribution during morphological modifications is suggested.
Abstract: Background: The mosquito A. aegypti is vector of dengue and other viruses. New methods of vector control are needed and can be achieved by a better understanding of the life cycle of this insect. Embryogenesis is a part of A. aegypty life cycle that is poorly understood. In insects in general and in mosquitoes in particular energetic metabolism is well studied during oogenesis, when the oocyte exhibits fast growth, accumulating carbohydrates, lipids and proteins that will meet the regulatory and metabolic needs of the developing embryo. On the other hand, events related with energetic metabolism during A. aegypti embryogenesis are unknown. Results: Glucose metabolism was investigated throughout Aedes aegypti (Diptera) embryonic development. Both cellular blastoderm formation (CBf, 5 h after egg laying - HAE) and germ band retraction (GBr, 24 HAE) may be considered landmarks regarding glucose 6-phosphate (G6P) destination. We observed high levels of glucose 6-phosphate dehydrogenase (G6PDH) activity at the very beginning of embryogenesis, which nevertheless decreased up to 5 HAE. This activity is correlated with the need for nucleotide precursors generated by the pentose phosphate pathway (PPP), of which G6PDH is the key enzyme. We suggest the synchronism of egg metabolism with carbohydrate distribution based on the decreasing levels of phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase (PEPCK) activity and on the elevation observed in protein content up to 24 HAE. Concomitantly, increasing levels of hexokinase (HK) and pyruvate kinase (PK) activity were observed, and PEPCK reached a peak around 48 HAE. Glycogen synthase kinase (GSK3) activity was also monitored and shown to be inversely correlated with glycogen distribution during embryogenesis. Conclusions: The results herein support the hypothesis that glucose metabolic fate changes according to developmental embryonic stages. Germ band retraction is a moment that was characterized as a landmark in glucose metabolism during Aedes aegypti embryogenesis. Furthermore, the results also suggest a role for GSK3 in glycogen balance/distribution during morphological modifications.
TL;DR: Mussel mortality did not rise upon 48 h of air exposure at 18° but increased significantly within the first 20 h of exposure to 32 °C, indicating that hypoxia by itself may induce the expression of Hsp70 and Hsp90 in the tissues of M. galloprovincialis.
TL;DR: Altering of DC metabolism mediated by SOCS3 represents a novel mechanism for DC dysfunction in the tumor microenvironment.
Abstract: Dendritic cell (DC) function is negatively affected by tumors and tumor-derived factors, but little is known about the underlying mechanisms. Here, we show that intracellular SOCS3 in DCs binds to pyruvate kinase type M2 (M2-PK), which plays a critical role in ATP production through glycolysis. The interaction of SOCS3 with M2-PK reduced ATP production and impaired DC-based immunotherapy against tumors. Thus, SOCS3, which has been shown to be upregulated by tumor-derived factors, interacts with M2-PK to decrease ATP production, causing DC dysfunction. These dysfunctional DCs have a reduced ability to present antigens. Alteration of DC metabolism mediated by SOCS3 represents a novel mechanism for DC dysfunction in the tumor microenvironment.
TL;DR: The activation and recruitment of ChREBP to several glucose-responsive genes were blocked by 1RH, indicating a general necessity for c-Myc in this process.
Abstract: Glucose regulates programs of gene expression that orchestrate changes in cellular phenotype in several metabolically active tissues. Carbohydrate response element-binding protein (ChREBP) and its binding partner, Mlx, mediate glucose-regulated gene expression by binding to carbohydrate response elements on target genes, such as the prototypical glucose-responsive gene, liver-type pyruvate kinase (Pklr). c-Myc is also required for the glucose response of the Pklr gene, although the relationship between c-Myc and ChREBP has not been defined. Here we describe the molecular events of the glucose-mediated activation of Pklr and determine the effects of decreasing the activity or abundance of c-Myc on this process. Time-course chromatin immunoprecipitation revealed a set of transcription factors [hepatocyte nuclear factor (HNF)1alpha, HNF4alpha, and RNA polymerase II (Pol II)] constitutively resident on the Pklr promoter, with a relative enrichment of acetylated histones 3 and 4 in the same region of the gene. Glucose did not affect HNF1alpha binding or the acetylation of histones H3 or H4. By contrast, glucose promoted the recruitment of ChREBP and c-Myc and increased the occupancy of HNF4alpha and RNA Pol II, which were coincident with the glucose-mediated increase in transcription as determined by a nuclear run-on assay. Depletion of c-Myc activity using a small molecule inhibitor (10058-F4/1RH) abolished the glucose-mediated recruitment of HNF4alpha, ChREBP, and RNA Pol II, without affecting basal gene expression, histone acetylation, and HNF1alpha or basal HNF4alpha occupancy. The activation and recruitment of ChREBP to several glucose-responsive genes were blocked by 1RH, indicating a general necessity for c-Myc in this process.
TL;DR: The data suggest that the impairment of energy metabolism and oxidative stress could be related with the pathogenic pathways in stress related disorders.
Abstract: Since chronic stress has been used widely for studying clinical depression and that brain energy metabolism and oxidative stress might be involved in the pathophysiology of this illness, the objective of this study was investigate the activities of pyruvate kinase, complex II and IV (cytocrome c oxidase) in hippocampus and prefrontal cortex of rats submitted to chronic variable stress. We also evaluated if vitamins E and C administration could prevent such effects. During 40 days adult rats from the stressed group were subjected to one stressor per day, at a different time each day, in order to minimize predictability. The stressed group had gained less weight while its immobilization time in the forced swimming test was greater than that of the control group. Results showed that stressed group presented an inhibition in the activities of complex II and cytochrome c oxidase in prefrontal cortex, while in hippocampus just complex IV was inhibited. Pyruvate kinase activity was not altered in stressed group when compared to control. Vitamins E and C administration prevented the alterations on respiratory chain caused by stress. These data suggest that the impairment of energy metabolism and oxidative stress could be related with the pathogenic pathways in stress related disorders.
TL;DR: Recent work by Salvador Moncada's group published in PNAS and other recent work from the same group provides exciting evidence supporting the idea that the Warburg effect is also required for the proliferation of noncancer cells.
Abstract: A remarkable trademark of most tumors is their ability to break down glucose by glycolysis at a vastly higher rate than in normal tissues, even when oxygen is copious. This phenomenon, known as the Warburg effect, enables rapidly dividing tumor cells to generate essential biosynthetic building blocks such as nucleic acids, amino acids, and lipids from glycolytic intermediates to permit growth and duplication of cellular components during division (1). An assumption dominating research in this area is that the Warburg effect is specific to cancer. Thus, much of the focus has been on uncovering mechanisms by which cancer-causing mutations influence metabolism to stimulate glycolysis. This has lead to many exciting discoveries. For example, the p53 tumor suppressor can suppress glycolysis through its ability to control expression of key metabolic genes, such as phosphoglycerate mutase (2), synthesis of cytochrome C oxidase-2 (3), and TP53-induced glycolysis and apoptosis regulator (TIGAR) (4). Many cancer-causing mutations lead to activation of the Akt and mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) pathway that profoundly influences metabolism and expression of metabolic enzymes to promote glycolysis (5). Strikingly, all cancer cells but not nontransformed cells express a specific splice variant of pyruvate kinase, termed M2-PK, that is less active, leading to the build up of phosphoenolpyruvate (6). Recent work has revealed that reduced activity of M2-PK promotes a unique glycolytic pathway in which phosphoenolpyruvate is converted to pyruvate by a histidine-dependent phosphorylation of phosphoglycerate mutase, promoting assimilation of glycolytic products into biomass (7). However, despite these observations, one might imagine that the Warburg effect need not be specific for cancer and that any normal cell would need to stimulate glycolysis to generate sufficient biosynthetic materials to fuel expansion and division. Recent work by Salvador Moncada's group published in PNAS (8) and other recent work from the same group (9, 10) provides exciting evidence supporting the idea that the Warburg effect is also required for the proliferation of noncancer cells.
TL;DR: This study provides insight in understanding the modulated role of large oligomeric multifunctional proteins such as PKM2 by affecting cellular behavior, which is an essential observation to understand tumor sustenance and progression and to design therapeutic intervention in future.