Showing papers on "Realism published in 1972"
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TL;DR: FREEMAN and JIANIKOUN as mentioned in this paper found that the tendency to stop including a handle in the copy and to start including the flower occurred between 7 and 8 years of age.
Abstract: FREEMAN, N. H., and JIANIKOUN, R. Intellectual Realism in Children's Drawings of a Familiar Object with Distinctive Features. CHILD DEVELOPMENT, 1972, 43, 1116-1121. It has long been maintained that the child "draws what he knows rather than what he sees": Piaget argues that the mental image is a dominant factor in intellectual realism in drawing and copying up to about 7 or 8 years of age. Intellectual realism was investigated by using an object with long-term familiarity as a model. A cup was presented to children with the defining feature (the handle) not visible, and a nondefining feature (a painted flower) visible. There was a developmental trend in the tendency to stop including a handle in the copy and to start including the flower. This change from intellectual to visual realism occurred between 7 and 8 years of age. There may be several factors contributing to intellectual realism.
93 citations
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65 citations
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TL;DR: Political Realism dominated the discipline of international relations throughout the 1950s and there were occasional complaints that it went "too far" or that it did not properly value some things which should be properly valued, but there was very little fundamental disagreement with its interpretation of what international politics was all about as discussed by the authors.
Abstract: Political Realism dominated the discipline of international relations throughout the 1950s. There were occasional complaints that it went "too far" or that it did not properly value some things which should be properly valued, but there was very little fundamental disagreement with its interpretation of what international politics was all about. Even the liberal Left joined the chorus, perhaps out of guilt for opposing rearmament against Hitler in the 1930s or perhaps for fear of being branded naive again in the face of a new threat. Realism is, of course, no longer in style in academic circles. It has been under continuous attack for something over a decade-and the worst sort of attack, for it has simply been ignored as an anachronistic remnant of the discipline's early years. Its staying power, albeit in a less formal and coherent fashion, however, has been much greater and more persistent outside academia. This is not especially surprising, since there is normally a gap between the period when a doctrine is articulated in intellectual circles and accepted by men working in the field-and, of course, a gap between the period when it is rejected by the theorist and by the practitioner. The inconsistencies and the anomalies which trouble the theorist, and which make him more receptive to new doctrines, always appear less salient to men working on daily problems: the erosion of the
28 citations
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TL;DR: In the early years of the twentieth century, American intellectual life was transformed by a shift of interest to the social and economic dimension of human affairs, and constitutional realists, while not a principal source of this transformation, were nevertheless stimulated by it to adopt a new attitude of critical realism toward the constitution and public law as discussed by the authors.
Abstract: CONSTITUTIONALISM iS one of the major themes in western political thought which has occupied a preeminent place in the American political tradition. Whatever else is said about the way Americans manage their governmental and political affairs, attention is invariably directed to the peculiarly important role that written constitutions have come to assume in defining the institutional framework and central purposes and values of the polity. Like most important political ideas, however, constitutionalism in its long history has acquired a variety of meanings and significations. The idea of the constitutional has become as basic to our political thought and discourse as the idea of the public interest-and as difficult to define. For what is regarded as constitutional by one person or group may seem unconstitutional or arbitrary to another. Nevertheless, though the concept may not readily lend itself to precise and rigorous application in the analysis of political behavior, few would deny its importance as a political idea or its validity in distinguishing between systems of government. Efforts to assess the nature, meaning, and significance of constitutionalism reflect major tendencies in the political and intellectual life of a society in addition to providing insight into one of the central problems of political theory. In the early years of the twentieth centuryAmerican intellectual life was transformed by a shift of interest to the social and economic dimension of human affairs. Political and legal scholars, while not a principal source of this transformation, were nevertheless stimulated by it to adopt a new attitude of critical realism toward the constitution and public law. Constitutional realism at a minimum involved description of the actual institutions of government and distribution of power beyond the formal prescriptions of the constitution and laws. Often identified with reform efforts, constitutional realists criticized the judicial process and the general tendency of traditional constitutionalism to emphasize restraints on governmental power. They gave special attention, moreover, to the motivating forces behind constitutional change-an intellec-
12 citations
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TL;DR: The Princeton Legacy Library uses the latest print-on-demand technology to again make available previously out-of-print books from the distinguished backlist of Princeton University Press.
Abstract: Christopher Caudwell was the pseudonym of Christopher St. John Sprigg, a British journalist and professional writer who became an important philosopher and critic in the 1930's, author of "Illusion and Reality" and "Studies in a Dying Culture."In the mid-thirties Caudwell joined the Communist Party; he died in 1937 in the defense of Madrid, leaving the manuscript of "Romance and Realism" unpublished. This short but comprehensive book is a Marxist interpretation of English literature from Shakespeare to Spender. The author follows the course of English history-the end of feudalism, the age of exploration, the rise of the common man, industrialization, science- producing his particular synthesis of literature as a subjective experience (romance) and as a response to society (realism). The major writers and movements of English literature are discussed, often with brilliant observations."Romance and Realism" is important as Marxist criticism, as a reflection of the acrid definitions of the writers of the thirties (including Auden, Orwell, C. Day Lewis), and as the highly personal view of a talented critic.Originally published in 1971.The Princeton Legacy Library uses the latest print-on-demand technology to again make available previously out-of-print books from the distinguished backlist of Princeton University Press. These paperback editions preserve the original texts of these important books while presenting them in durable paperback editions. The goal of the Princeton Legacy Library is to vastly increase access to the rich scholarly heritage found in the thousands of books published by Princeton University Press since its founding in 1905.
9 citations
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01 Jan 1972
TL;DR: This article presented the Ibsen canon as a single, cohesive exploration of the nature of consciousness and showed that the realistic form of nineteenth-century drama could encompass symbolism and work toward departures from realism.
Abstract: This totally new and brilliant approach to the Ibsen canon presents the plays as a single, cohesive exploration of the nature of consciousness. In addition, Lyons s close reading of the seven plays reveals Ibsen s major metaphors and demonstrates that the realistic form of nineteenth-century drama could encompass symbolism and work toward departures from realism."
6 citations
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TL;DR: The study of international relations has passed through a series of intellectual controversies including the debate between political realism and political idealism and the debate as to whether international relations is a distinct discipline or the subject matter of several other disciplines.
Abstract: The study of international relations has passed through a series of intellectual controversies. These have included the debate between political realism and political idealism and the debate as to whether international relations is a distinct discipline or the subject matter of several other disciplines. Now the discipline is debating appropriate methodology. Proponents of a traditional approach and proponents of a scientific approach both contend for their particular methodology.
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TL;DR: Smollett's evolution as a novelist follows a general trend of his period which came to reject looser forms of fiction in favor of those which were at once more lifelike and coherent as mentioned in this paper.
Abstract: The only way fully to grasp the dynamics of Smollett's development as a novelist is through examination of his continuing efforts to create a unified art work. Recently, in support of this concern, attention has been drawn to the kinetic nature of his search for form.1 As a further step in a reassessment of Smollett's career, we should see that his quest involved a redefinition of his philosophic attitudes as well as changes of a more purely formal nature. Throughout his career he searched for new modes of expression to mirror his insights about life in a fully coherent work of art; only gradually did he recognize and respond to the inevitability of transforming that insight itself into something more congenial to the novel form and to the historical circumstances that give rise to this genre. In a general way, Smollett's experiments with novel form reveal a movement away from a satiric anatomy largely derived from the picaresque tradition toward a more coherent novel "world" in which character, plot, and authorial assessment work together in a unified manner. Smollett's evolution thus follows a general trend of his period which came to reject looser forms of fiction in favor of those which were at once more lifelike and coherent. But in emphasizing formal realism, as Ian Watt has pointed out, the novelists of this period raised crucial and persistent problems about matters of aesthetic and moral evaluation. How was one to achieve a tale that was both lifelike and yet an evaluation or moral assessment of that life? How was one to reconcile the different, and apparently opposing, demands of a "realism of presentation" and a "realism of assessment"?2 Smollett's solution to this problem, finally, in his last novel cannot be divorced from his search for a philosophical stance on the problem of how we come to "know" reality. His career can be seen as reflecting a struggle to come to terms with the implications of Lockean epistemology for both his conception of reality and his novel form.
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TL;DR: The most important literary associations that Henry James enjoyed was with the members of the "young French school," as he called the group of writers who met regularly at the home of Gustave Flaubert in Paris as mentioned in this paper.
Abstract: O NE OF THE most important literary associations that Henry James enjoyed was with the members of the "young French school," as he called the group of writers who met regularly at the home of Gustave Flaubert in Paris. To that circle James was introduced, appropriately, by another expatriate, Ivan Turgenev, in 1875. The full study of the benefits James derived from this association is yet to be made-and this is not the occasion to make that attempt. Yet one may offer a brief sketch of it. The general attraction of the group is suggested by James's title for them, "the grandsons of Balzac." From his earliest years James had admired what he called the "palpable provable world" of Balzac's fiction. His own critical writing in those early years is characterized by a marked appreciation of the faithfully realistic surface of the fiction he discussed: his word of praise for Scott was that he set before the reader "men and women in their habit as they lived." And while he seemed to balk at the term "realism," he nevertheless heartily approved the aspects of its actual appearance. There was, then, a certain inevitability in James's directing his steps to Paris, in his thirty-third year, and seeking out the most exciting and serious literary artists of his time. If the Flaubert group as a whole appealed to James in their role as literary descendants of Balzac ("the father of us all") and in their serious devotion to the art of fiction, the several members of the group exerted special attraction through their particular and peculiar characteristics. It is not a great oversimplification to say that in Flaubert's work it was the important significance of form that James admired:
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TL;DR: In Middlemarch, the author's mind is preeminently contemplative and analytic, and as George Eliot's mind should be discursive and expansive, it is natural that her manner should be more expansive as discussed by the authors.
Abstract: "Middlemarch is a treasure-house of details, but it is an indifferent whole." Henry James could not see the one quality which all of George Eliot's critics today are agreed on: the amazing unification of meaning and sensibility in Middlemarch. James, however, had already decided in Partial Portraits that George Eliot's bent was peculiarly intellectual, and when he came to write his review of the novel for The Galaxy, he did not meet the new novel as a new experience. " Certainly the greatest minds have the defects of their qualities, and as George Eliot's mind is preeminently contemplative and analytic, nothing is more natural than that her manner should be discursive and expansive. 'Concentration' would doubtless have deprived us of many of the best things in the book. . . . " 2 Blackwood had used the word " panorama " in discussing Felix Holt,3 and James uses the same word when he asks " It is not compact; but when was a panorama compact?" He concludes his 1873 review with these words: " It sets a limit, we think, to the development of the old-fashioned English novel. Its diffuseness, on which we have touched, makes it too copious a dose of pure fiction. If we write novels so, how shall we write History? "' James has raised an important point. The old-fashioned novel did indeed reach a climax in Middlemarch and could go no further, but not for the reason James gives, as we shall see later in more detail. At this point we should note that George Eliot as social
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TL;DR: O'CASEY CRITICISM has grown weary, at last, of raking through the ashes of barren controversy-the superior excellence of the Abbey plays over the later, or (conversely) the "expressionistic" drama over the "realistic," or the Dublin O'Casey over O'casey the exile as mentioned in this paper.
Abstract: O'CASEY CRITICISM HAS GROWN WEARY, AT LAST., of raking through the ashes of barren controversy-the superior excellence of the Abbey plays over the later, or (conversely) the "expressionistic" drama over the "realistic," or the Dublin O'Casey over O'Casey the exile. The lean years of inept and irrelevant critical judgments have been superseded in the last decade by passionate apologia, full scale studies of the dramatist, and a reading of the plays which suggests a far closer stylistic unity between the realism of the Abbey plays and the later expressionism than had previously been acknowledged. His symbolism and incipient expressionistic methods have revealed a stylistic bridge over the gulf between the two general areas of O'Casey's career; and the oversimplified view of the early O'Casey as a rude proletarian realist is yielding now to the recognition of dramatic qualities in the Abbey plays inconsistent with "slice-of-life" drama and the "photographic realism" with which he has frequently been (dis-) c...
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TL;DR: Saroyan as mentioned in this paper is a CONTRADICTION of terms: he is buoyantly optimistic (an attitude violently attacked and rejected by the egotistical view, that modern society is the first society to recognize the hopelessness of life and the destructiveness of man), yet he writes of murder and disillusionment.
Abstract: WILLIAM SAROY AN IS A CONTRADICTION OF TERMS. He is unabashedly: romantic, yet his romanticism is portrayed within the frequently sordid realism of the run-down bar and the lives of derelicts and prostitutes, escaped convicts and gamblers. He is buoyantly optimistic (an attitude violently attacked and rejected by the egotistical view, that modern society is the first society to recognize the hopelessness of life and the destructiveness of man), yet he writes of murder and disillusionment. He uses the simplest, most realistic dialogue and characters in plays with little discernible reality of plot and—sometimes – setting.
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TL;DR: Mart Marty as discussed by the authors argues that men act in the light of futures which they envision or project, futures whose raw materials are things remembered, the usable past, and that a usable past makes sense only in relation to a desirable future; both require rending of past and future, of what has been and what should be.
Abstract: All who profess history as a way of knowing and making a living are acutely aware that we live in an anti-historical age. Youthful radicals and their most vigorous opponents appear as opposite sides of a coin; both engage in historical myth making which manifests a common abhorrence for the uncertainty, ambiguity, and conflict which are the fruits of the historical consciousness. Worse, some of our most respectable scholars seek to correct the situation with a pseudohistorical realism which mocks human purpose and contemporary man's efforts to master his destiny. Americans have always rejected such fatalism and ignored the supposed demands of an impersonal and inexorable history. Instead, they have continually manufactured for themselves new and hopeful histories to underpin their truly religious faith in the nation, its ideals, and its mission. This American aversion to a history which seeks to confine men's hopes to the obviously possible and to debunk their deepest yearnings and aspirations has considerable significance for contemporary Christians. In The Search for a Usable Future, Martin Marty contends that men act in the light of futures which they envision or project, futures whose raw materials are things remembered, the usable past. If Marty is right, perhaps what American religion in generalAmerican religious historiography in particular-needs is less a revision of the record than a rebirth of vision. A usable past makes sense only in relation to a desirable future; both require a rending of past and future, of what has been and what should be.1 They require specifically a truly critical view of America; this, in turn, demands recognition of the extent to which many of the most cherished notions of American Christians rest on unexamined assumptions about America itself. Whatever the merit of these assumptions and of the American civil religion which they define, American Christians are going to have to deal with their problems within the American framework which continues to shape their awareness and response long after they believe they have "come of age." "While the past itself has been almost entirely an old-world possession," Henry Steele Commager writes, "Americans have resolutely studied themselves as if they were an isolated chapter in history and exempt from the processes of history."2 From the very beginning America was somehow beyond the history
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TL;DR: For example, it has been suggested that Becker's relativism has its origins in similar views of Croce, but this is implausible on its face as mentioned in this paper, since it is not easily believed that an historian who devoted so many productive years to historical research and writing should ultimately arrive at a position which says that all that work has no epistemic worth.
Abstract: so highly-esteemed an historian who devoted so many productive years to historical research and writing should ultimately arrive at a position which says in effect that all that work has no epistemic worth. It has recently been suggested that Becker’s relativism has its origins in similar views of Croce,’ but this is implausible on its face. I do not wish to say that Becker might not have been aided in the formulation of his relativism by what he found in writings of Croce, but that a practising historian should be converted to a sceptical position concerning what he does by something he read in a philosopher’s book is not easily believed. Unless he had already some inclination in that direction, he would rather likely dismiss the philosopher’s view as philosophers’ views are so often dismissed. In my view, one can find that inclination in Becker’s reflections on what he was doing as historian, and the ground of his sceptical views will prove to be a growing awareness that his conception of the goal of the historical enterprise is not compatible with what historical inquiry actually is like. One may discover this by attending to what he has to say in such general, reflective papers as ’Detachment and
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TL;DR: It is also increasingly taken for granted that westerns reflect contemporary political and social issues and that one can learn much about American attitudes from a study of westerns as historical documents.
Abstract: It is a commonplace that American western fiction is ' mythic ' and archetypal. It is also increasingly taken for granted that westerns reflect contemporary political and social issues and that one can learn much about American attitudes from a study of westerns as historical documents. Are these ideas reconcilable? One answer would be that though the book or film may com municate certain contemporary messages to its local audience, it also conveys ' universal truths ' to a wider public. To see how wrong this happy com promise is, one has only to consider the following typical cases, taken from various stages in the history of American western fiction. Fenimore Cooper's Leatherstocking stories seem to be set in an impossible never-never land, yet the author occasionally provides ' scholarly ' footnotes relating the stories' locales to real places in America. The dime novel Seth Jones, by Edward Ellis (i860), contains elaborate anthropological notes on Indians, but on the page following one of them the hero says, ' " Howsumever, that don't make no difference, whether it's the Mohawks, Oneidas, or any of them blasted Five Nation niggers, they are all a set of skunks..." ' Emerson Hough pauses in the middle of North of 36 (1923) to provide a bibliography of sources for the facts about cowboy life on which he draws. The film producers D. W. Griffith and James Cruze (The Covered Wagon, 1923, is based on a romance by Hough) spent enormous amounts of money and energy to get costumes, settings and technical details historically accurate, when their plots moved to the old romance rhythms of love affairs and escapes from fates worse than death. Here the ' timeless ' and the contemporary, the romance and the realism, lie side by side, but whereas in the ordinary novel (or what the academic student of literature would call a novel) the realistic story gives rise to, and serves as an image for, the more universal themes, here the two elements merely lie side by side, apparently unrelated. It would seem that to make sense of the western, the reader or filmgoer must disregard, or at least down grade, one or other of the two modes of fiction. My view, though it is now an unfashionable one, is that the archetypal element must be and in the minds AM.ST.?7
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TL;DR: The most notable literary event of the 1960s was the rebirth of Ukrainian poetry as discussed by the authors, where a group of young poets who were called shestydesiatnyky ("sixtiers") came into existence, and their greatest achievement was the rediscovery of the function of poetry.
Abstract: The past decade was a time of intense change in the intellectual climate of the Soviet Ukraine. The roots of the change go back to the Twentieth Party Congress and Khrushchev's de-Stalinization policy. After 1964, when the political course hardened considerably, Ukrainian writers and intellectuals were still carried on by the wave of discontent released by earlier events. The discontent with Stalinism was coupled with a search for new values and ideas, and in the world of art, for new forms and expressions. Despite reimposed controls, this search in the 1960s was successful and left its mark on contemporary Ukrainian literature and literary criticism. During the last seven years it has also given birth to a widespread movement of dissent. In order to understand the current literary situation in the Ukraine one must cast a glance over the past decade and detect the nature of the intellectual ferment during that period. One need not dwell here on those features of intellectual discontent with Stalinism which were also apparent in Russia, since they are generally well known. Demands for more creative freedom and voices raised in opposition to the sterile doctrine of socialist realism and party control over the arts were heard throughout the Soviet Union. In the Ukraine, however, the "thaw" had a distinctive flavor. National awareness-sternly suppressed under Stalin-reasserted itself, and a partial rehabilitation of the Ukrainian literature of the 1920s intensified the feeling of national identity. Yet-at first at least-the national element in Ukrainian literature was rather subdued. Not only because "nationalism" was still a dangerous label for those to whom it might be applied, but also because nationalism is asserted more subtly today than it was half a century ago. The most notable literary event of the 1960s was the rebirth of Ukrainian poetry. A group of young poets who were called shestydesiatnyky ("sixtiers") came into existence. Among them were Lina Kostenko, Ivan Drach, Vitalii Korotych, Mykola Vinhranovsky, and Vasyl Symonenko. Their greatest achievement was the rediscovery of the function of poetry. Stripped of socialist realist cliches, the poem was re-established as an essentially lyrical expression of the individual person. True, philosophical and social overtones are occasionally present, but the poem is judged first on its artistic and linguistic merits, not on any ideology, which indeed is absent. Some of the young poets (espe-
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TL;DR: The best literature of the Soviet period was placed in the tradition of the nineteenth-century Russian classics as discussed by the authors and the best works of the Russian literary giants of the 19th century were studied in the educational programs of the USSR.
Abstract: Every effort is being made to retain in the literature programs of the Soviet schools and universities all the best work of the Russian literary giants of the nineteenth century. There is even a trend in Soviet scholarship to place the best literary work of the Soviet period in the tradition of the nineteenth-century Russian classics. Lenin repeated time and again that it was necessary "to assimilate critically all that is valuable from the preceding culture."' Some Soviet scholars go even further and claim that socialist realism and its best representatives are continuing the literary traditions of the great nineteenth-century Russian writers. Konstantin Fedin is thought of as one who continues Turgenev's "traditions of intellectualism" and shares his ability to be "a chronicler of his epoch, a creator of unforgettable women characters,"2 and Sholokhov is regarded as a writer who further develops Tolstoy's style. Some Soviet critics even complain because there is no visible link in the educational programs to connect Mayakovsky with Pushkin and Lermontov.3 As far as the teaching of contemporary Soviet literature is concerned, the emphasis is on authors and works well known and approved by political and party leaders. The latest works appearing in Soviet literary magazines and journals do not find their way into the programs of educational institutions. It is little wonder, since much of contemporary Soviet literature passes unnoticed: "Four-fifths of the new works of literature receive no mention in literary criticism."4 The same is true of the literary groups that continued to exist in the early postrevolutionary period: "Their aesthetic platforms are treated in an obscure manner."5
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TL;DR: The genteel romance was a popular mode of fiction in the early 20th century as mentioned in this paper, and Mitchell's psychological realism was the main contribution to the development of American fiction.
Abstract: RITICS TODAY VIEW S. WEIR MITCHELL'S psychological realism as his main contribution to the development of American fiction.' Mitchell's world-wide preeminence as a neurologist and analyst of psychological disorders emphasizes this contribution. He drew upon his medical experience to create such characters as Constance Trescot, a widow neurotically obsessed with revenge; George Dedlow, a quadruple amputee who loses his sense of identity; and Octopia Darnell, whose schizophrenia results from her latent lesbianism.' Yet chroniclers of popular literature place Mitchell within the tradition known as the "genteel romance," which blossomed ephemerally from about I890 until I9IO. This mode of fiction included such writers as Anthony Hope, Richard Harding Davis, George Barr McCutcheon, James Lane Allen, Charles Major, F. Marion Crawford, Mary Johnston, Maurice Thompson, Emerson Hough, Owen Wister, and Winston Churchill.3 Mitchell himself, although very much aware of the "realism" in his work, said that he hated realism per se. He would take his realism only so far as his sense of decorum would let him. Beyond that point, he was a writer of "romance." Few critics have tried systematically and thoroughly to idefine his romance or, for that matter, the genteel romance. Most critics who place the genteel romance in literary history concentrate on its form. And admittedly form is a blatant characteristic of it. The average genteel romance was set in the past, usually during the American Revolution or Civil War, or during the chivalrous European Renaissance. The hero usually began the romance dispossessed of his estate