Showing papers on "Rural area published in 1972"

Rural Hausa: A Village and a Setting

Abstract: This book was originally published in 1972 and relates to the Hausa-speaking people of West Africa. At the time of publication there were perhaps as many as 15 million Hausa-speaking people in the area, most of whom lived in the countryside in northern Nigeria and the neighbouring Niger Republic. This book is at once an examination of the socio-economic life of a small Hausa village and a study of the way of life of the rural Hausa generally. The book as a whole provides a wide-ranging survey both of what was known and of what was, and in some cases still is, little understood. Very few books had been written on the rural Hausa, much of the literature consisting of scarce pamphlets and official reports; this book not only reports important research, but also surveys literature which was otherwise not generally available. The themes which emerge from this study are similar to many which Polly Hill has stressed elsewhere: people who do not fit into crude stereotypes and socio-economic life are always much more varied and sophisticated than superficial observers would suppose.

The Portage Project: A Model for Early Childhood Education:

Abstract: This article describes an intervention program serving 75 preschool multiply handicapped children living in a rural area. Ages of the children ranged from birth to 6 years. All instruction took place in the child's home. Individualized curriculum was prescribed and demonstrated by a home teacher who visited each parent and child 1 day per week for 1% hours. During the week, the parents taught the prescribed curriculum and recorded the child's resultant behavior on a daily basis. The results of the project indicate that handicapped children can progress above their expected developmental rate and that parents can initiate, observe, and accurately record this change.

Town and Country Planning in Britain

Abstract: 1. The Evolution of Town and Country Planning 2. The Agencies of Planning 3. The Planning Framework 4. The Control of Development 5. Land Policies 6. Planning and the Environment 7. Heritage Planning 8. Countryside Planning 9. Urban Policies 10. Transport Planning 11. Planning and the Public Bibliographies

Antibiotic resistance and transmissible R-factors in the intestinal coliform flora of healthy adults and children in an urban and a rural community.

Abstract: Faeces of healthy adults and of children under the age of 5, none of whom were attending hospital or receiving antibiotics, were examined for the presence of antibiotic resistant coliform bacilli. A higher proportion of children (67%) than of adults (46%) carried resistant strains and this difference was observed in both the rural and urban groups. Rural members of both age groups more often carried resistant organisms than urban members. Among rural adults, the incidence of drug-resistant strains was 63% in those whose occupation involved close contact with farm animals, compared with 29% in those with other occupations. The survey took place before the implementation of the Swann Report could have influenced the use of antibiotics in animal foodstuffs. Transmissible R-factors were demonstrated in 61% of the resistant strains. The incidence of transmissible resistance was similar among adults and children in town and country.

General Practice in Australia

Abstract: A personal view of the state of general practice in Australia and likely trends in the future is presented in this article. The effects of falling recruitment and increasing community demand for service have not yet produced serious effects in this country. A comparison of the effects on urban and rural areas is made. The general practitioner must relinquish some of his traditional roles, especially in surgery and anesthesia, and adopt new ones. To cope with an increasing work load more use must be made by general practitioners of associated health personnel. Community health centers should be developed in Australia and they may be the key to the viability of general practice. The National Health Service as it applies to general practice is discussed especially in relation to the recent introduction of the most common fee concept. The Royal Australian College of General Practitioners is active in preparing a vocational training program. Excerpts from the preliminary report of the Australian Medical Associ...

Are Black Migrants from the South to the Northern Cities Worse Off Than Blacks Already There

Abstract: Among Negroes living in an SMSA outside the South in 1960, those born in the South had higher incomes and less unemployment than those born in the North with or without standardizing for differences in age, years of school, and a number of other variables. Recent migrants, defined as those living in an SMSA in 1960 but not in 1955, did have lower incomes than those who were in SMSAs in both years, although the differential is larger for whites than for Negroes. Several possible explanations for these results are discussed. Economists often look at migration as an investment and compare the income of migrants with that of people who remained behind. This study focuses on a different aspect of migration. It compares the migrants with those who were already at the destination point. Specifically, the study examines the migration of Negroes from the South to the northern cities and, The author is Associate Professor of Economics at the University of Notre Dame. * The statistical part of this study was performed at Rutgers University pursuant to a contract with the Office of Economic Opportunity. The opinions expressed herein are those of the author and should not be construed as representing the opinions or policy of any agency of the United States government. The research also was supported in part by funds granted to the Institute for Research on Poverty, University of Wisconsin, by the Office of Economic Opportunity pursuant to the provisions of the Economic Opportunity Act of 1964. The author is indebted to Kate Tallmadge, Mildred Evans, and Burt Barnow for computer programming, to Ronald Rudolph for research assistance, and to Patricia Koshel and Bette Mahoney of OEO and his colleagues at Rutgers and Wisconsin for advice and encouragement. Particularly helpful comments were received from Irwin Garfinkel, Michael Taussig, the referees, and from Kenneth Brown and other participants at a research seminar at Notre Dame. The Journal of Human Resources * VII * 4 This content downloaded from 207.46.13.158 on Tue, 15 Nov 2016 03:56:52 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms 412 1 THE JOURNAL OF HUMAN RESOURCES for all regions, from rural to urban areas. The income and labor-force status of these migrants are compared with the corresponding values for Negroes who were already in the cities. By doing such a study, we can obtain at least a partial answer to the question, "How many of the problems facing northern (or urban) Negroes can be attributed directly to their migration from the South (or from rural areas)?" If we find that the migrants are much worse off than nonmigrants, then more resources probably should be allocated to special organizations in the cities to assist the newcomers. It might also be very important to improve the quality of schooling and counseling in the areas from which the migrants came. The results of this study indicate, however, that the migrants are likely to be better off than the nonmigrants, at least once an initial adjustment period is passed.l If the migrants are better off than the long-term urban residents, then efforts to improve the situation of northern Negroes should probably focus on the general issue of discrimination rather than on special programs to assist migrants. In addition, we should not be too optimistic that the position of northern Negroes will automatically improve as the migration slows down. This last statement must be qualified, however, since a decrease in the size of the migration might still improve the position of northern Negroes if the relative size of the Negro and white communities has an important effect on the opportunities available to Negroes. I. DATA AND THE MEASURES OF MIGRATION STATUS This study is based on data from the 1/1,000 sample of the 1960 Census. With these data we can look at both lifetime and recent migration. Lifetime migrants are Negroes who were born in the South but who are living in Standard Metropolitan Statistical Areas (SMSAs) outside the South in 1 Some earlier studies that have made somewhat similar comparisons, often as a side issue in connection with some other topic, are Karl E. and Alma F. Taeuber, Negroes in Cities: Residential Segregation and Neighborhood Change (Chicago: Aldine, 1965); Richard F. Wertheimer II, The Monetary Rewards of Migration within the U.S. (Washington: Urban Institute, 1970); John F. Kain and Joseph J. Persky, "The North's Stake in Southern Rural Poverty," in Rural Poverty in the United States (Washington: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1968); Donald and Deborah Freedman, "Farm-Reared Elements in the Non-Farm Population," Rural Sociology 21 (March 1965), pp. 50-61: Melvin Lurie and Elton Rayack, "Racial Differences in Migration and Job Search: A Case Study," Southern Economic Journal 33 (July 1966), pp. 81-95; and John B. Lansing and James M. Morgan, "The Effect of Geographic Mobility on Income," Journal of Human Resources 2 (Fall 1967), pp. 449-60. This content downloaded from 207.46.13.158 on Tue, 15 Nov 2016 03:56:52 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms

The middle west

Abstract: Most of the Middle West was settled before the passage of the Homestead Act in 1863 by people of northern and western European ancestry who relied heavily upon water transport. Their commercial agriculture was based upon a standard rotation of corn, small grains, and hay, and most of the crops were fed to hogs or cattle. A century of rural stability produced a pecuniary value system associated with the family farm ideology. Part-owner operation has facilitated recent increases in farm size. Manufacturing in the west remains agriculturally-oriented, but the automobile industry has become more important in the east. The metropolitan Democratic vote is balanced by a Republican tradition in rural areas. The traits of the Middle West have strongly influenced the geographic profession in the United States.

Health services in Cuba. An initial appraisal.

Abstract: The development of the Cuban health services during the last decade reflects a commitment to minimize the striking inequalities in the availability and consumption of health resources that previously existed between social classes, between cities and rural areas, and between regions. This process of equalization has been characterized by a centralization of inpatient services, a decentralization of ambulatory services, and an increase in the use and production of paramedical and auxiliary personnel within the health-services system. The health services today are structured according to regional models aimed at providing integrated care to the whole population, with integration of preventive with curative services, social with medical services, and environmental with personal health services. The universal coverage of the population has been achieved by redistribution of old and new resources and a heavy investment in the health sector, with great priority given to the rural and poor areas and reg...

Rural-urban migration: who comes, who stays, who returns? The case of Bogota, Colombia, 1929-1968.

Abstract: The characteristics of rural urban migrants arriving over the 1929-68 period in Bogota Colombia were examined focusing on male migrants and the effect of migrant selectivity over time on the educational and occupational levels of Bogota and the predominantly rural region where most migrants to Bogota originate. Data were obtained primarily from a stratified (by social class) random sample of 3579 men aged 15-64 living in Bogota in September 1968 who were interviewed briefly to determine their age place of birth age at arrival to Bogota (for migrants only) occupation and marital status. A subsample of 871 married men age 20-54 years further stratified by migratory status (migrant and urban born) were interviewed in greater depth to determine selection features of their social and residential background and their migration and occupational history. These urban survey data were supplemented by a rural survey: a criterion sample (N = 256) of married men age 20-54 years in 11 rural villages in a region of heavy outmigration to Bogota. This rural sample included both nonmigrants and return migrants who had lived in a city for at least 1 year before returning to the rural area. Generally the origin of the migrants was clear since only 9% had lived in more than 1 rural place and only 12% had lived in an intermediate city before moving to Bogota. The migrants tended to come more from the small towns than from either the rural areas or the intermediate cities. Migrants clearly did not originate proportionately from the various occupational strata in the rural area. Relative to rural nonmigrants migrants were less likely to be sons of landless farmers and more likely to be sons of store owners government bureaucrats and similar middle income groups in the rural towns. Return migrants relative to both migrants and rural nonmigrants were more likely to be sons of landowners indicating that ties with the land may be a principal reason for returning. Mean years of schooling were highest for the fathers of return migrants (4.2 years) next highest for fathers of migrants who have remained in the metropolis (2.8) and lowest for the fathers of the rural nonmigrants (2.1). In accord with their social backgrounds migrants themselves revealed higher levels of schooling than rural nonmigrants. At least part of the explanation for the relatively constant levels of schooling among rural urban migrants over the past 40 years is related to the fact that male migrants tended to come with at least some education and that the level of education among those who have attended school does not appear to have changed greatly in the rural area. There did not appear to have been any systematic changes in the difficulty of obtaining work over the 40-year period and the mean skill level of work remained at about 1.9 on the 6 point scale. Thus it appears that the structure of work opportunities for incoming migrants did not change much.

The Impact of New Industry: An Application of the Economic Base Multiplier to Small Rural Areas

Abstract: CONSIDERABLE CONFUSION surrounds the nature and magnitude of the impact of new industry on the economy of small rural areas. Community leaders need to be able to make reasonably accurate predictions of multiplier effects arising from industrial development, especially in those cases in which financial subsidies are granted to new industry. Federal and state agencies must also predict such effects in evaluating public projects-for example, reservoir construction-in which "regional development" benefits are an important component of the cost-benefit analysis. This paper presents the findings of a study which relies upon economic base theory to estimate the employment and income multiplier effects of new industry in rural

Crime in Denmark--A Statistical History

Abstract: Denmark's population numbers less than five million persons. In most respects the population may be characterized as homogeneous; there exist no minority group conflicts. The main part of the population lives in towns, 28% in the capital and 31% in other towns in 1960. Only 41% of the population lives in rural areas. Apart from a considerable movement of persons from rural districts to urban districts population mobility is low. Denmark is often termed a welfare state. The social welfare and security system provides maternity care, free meals for needy children, home help service, relief to orphans, child welfare and sickness insurance, pensions for disabled persons, and aid to people suffering from chronic diseases. Denmark's different forms of poor relief include unemployment insurance, old age pensions, relief to widows and widowers, and subsidies for funeral

The psychology of modernization in the rural Philippines

Abstract: : The research was concerned with changes in attitudes, values and behavior associated with the modernizing influences of increased education, communication, and industrialization. A traditional style of life which has developed over many generations is being modified by urban, industrial influences. There have been changes in aspirations, family structure, and social control. Four similar communities which were located 50, 100, 200 and 400 kilometers from the capital and major city, Manila, were studied. Within each community 18 men and 18 women from each of three social levels were interviewed, yielding a total of 432 respondents. This design made it possible to determine the relative effects of distance from Manila, sex, and social class on modernity of attitudes. Exposure to modernizing influences was manipulated by selecting near and remote communities.

Overurbanization rustication of urban-educated youths and politics of rural transformation. The case of China.

Abstract: Many developing countries are currently experiencing an increasing level of urban unemployment despite a credible rise in industrial output and gross national income. The urban sector in many of these countries is beset with educated unemployment and the development of the rural sector has been limited by a failure to recruit persons with education and skills to staff the modern "infrastructures" in the rural areas. The skills and training needed to operate an agriculture supporting system are as advanced and complex as those needed by the modern sector and in most instances beyong the capacity of illiterate peasants to master. Yet most underdeveloped countries have failed to attract and put to work in the rural areas those individuals who have received modern education and cannot find employment in the urban areas. Discussion describes and analyzes the attempt of China to solve this contradiction by resettling urban school graduates to the countryside and employing them there as catalytic agents of rural development. In December 1968 China formally revived the "hsia hsiang shang shan yun tung" down to the countryside and up to the mountain movement hereafter referred to as the rustication movement. With this movement millions of urban school graduates and other youths have been transferred to and resettled in the countryside and frontiers. The target population of the rustication movement has been graduates of urban primary schools secondary schools general universities and specialized technical colleges who have terminated formal education and who are not assigned to a job or post in the cities; young urban residents "street youth" who are not attending school and have no steady employment; and the cadres of the party the government or industrial commercial enterprises whose skills are not needed in the urban areas but are badly needed in the rural areas. Estimates of the total number of rusticated urban educated youths vary from 10-15 million. In 1957-58 Chinese planners and policymakers formulated a dualistic approach to economic development. This combined capital-intensive methods in the modern sector in the urban areas and labor intensive methods in agriculture and indigenous industry in rural areas. Since 1969 Peking has revived this dualistic approach but with more careful planning. Rusticated urban school graduates are intended to be 1 of the key instruments in implementing this dualistic approach. They are expected because of their formal education and reading ability to be skillful and productive after a year or so of on-the-job training. They are called upon to be ordinary agricultural producers while simultaneously playing the role of catalysts in diffusing modern attitudes skills and knowledge and in establishing and operating modern social infrastructures in the rural villages all in the interest of accelerating rural transformation. In sending educated youths to the countryside the Communist party is simply reviving although somewhat modifying an imperial tradition.

Hookworm in Georgia II. Survey of Intestinal Helminth Infections in Members of Rural Households of Southeastern Georgia

Abstract: Using a stratified sampling technique, a household survey was conducted in 27 counties of southeastern Georgia in which 492 households (409 white and 83 Negro) were interviewed and 749 individuals (550 white and 199 Negro) were examined for intestinal helminth infections. Hookworm was found in 16% of the whites and 8% of the Negroes, the greatest prevalence in each race being in young adults. Hookworm infections were almost twice as prevalent in males as in females of both racial groups. Most residents of rural southeastern Georgia go without shoes out-of-doors, and 46% of the whites and 16% of the Negroes reported having had ground-itch at some time, although few had experienced it within the past year. Hookworm infections were more prevalent in individuals who went barefoot and who had experienced ground-itch within the previous year, although infections were found in persons who consistently wore shoes and had never had ground-itch. As many hookworm infections were found in individuals of households which now practice sanitary disposal of wastes as in members of households which do not; however, most of these probably were acquired before the introduction of sanitary facilities. Ascaris infections were found in 1% of the white and 12% of the Negro household members, almost all of the infections being in the youngest age-groups and most from households in which not all members practiced sanitary waste disposal. No Trichuris infections were found in Negro households, and only 4 cases occurred in the white group, all apparently old infections. The prevalence of helminthiases in southeastern Georgia continues to decline, but both hookworm and Ascaris infections will continue to be transmitted in the foreseeable future. These findings probably hold true also for geographically similar areas of other southeastern states.

Drawers of water. Domestic water use in East Africa.

Abstract: 7. Total Social Costs ... THE INTERRELATION OF HEALTH AND IMPROVEMENTS The epidemiological basis for the prevention of infections related to water by improving supplies may be summarized in the following way. The general model is illustrated in figure 7.1. Under conditions of appalling water supply the amount of illness is A. Increasing the volume supplied will decrease the morbidity until a point is reached where no matter how much more water is supplied the situation will remain static with V units of disease. On the other hand, improving water quality alone will reduce the disease amount to level P. Improving all aspects of water supply will, at optimal purity and volume, reduce the disease level to M. This residual amount will be unaffected by changes in water supply. The values of A, M, P, and V will depend on the physical and social environment and on the disease being considered. An aggregate model for all disease in a particular area will have a particular form depending on the environment. A similar model for improvement costs may be constructed (fig. 7.2), and the two may be compared. Quantitative data for such disease models are unavailable, but qualitatively the position is as follows. [FIGURE 7 OMITTED] The waterborne diseases in the strict sense are due to polluted supplies. The classical waterborne diseases have a low infecting close of organisms and may produce dramatic epidemics following relatively light pollution of a large common source. They reach their greatest importance in urban areas where the number of households per source is highest and for their prevention require completely pure supplies. The nonclassical waterborne infections are those requiring a larger infecting dose of microbes and are usually commoner diseases than the preceding ones, though often not waterborne in more developed countries. They are transmitted under conditions of heavy pollution even when sources do not supply large groups of households, and they may produce sporadic disease. We know little about their extent but suspect that they are most important in urban areas with very heavy pollution of unimproved sources. They are prevented by moderate protection of sources short of absolute sterility. The water-washed diseases are of two types. The bulk of such diseases as seen in the outpatient clinic are superficial infections of the skin and eyes. These reach their peak in dry areas with both a scarcity of water for washing and a dusty environment, though a generally unsanitary habitat makes matters worse. These are clearly of the water-washed category and the prime need in most rural areas is for a more accessible supply of greater volume. Purity is a secondary consideration and should not delay attempts to increase the quantities available. The diarrheal diseases also seem to diminish when water supplies are made more accessible. Their precise etiology is still far from clear and other factors are important, so that there are variations in prevalence between areas with comparable water supplies. A hot, dry climate and an unsanitary environment are both associated with much diarrhea, which is therefore common both in crowded urban and arid rural areas. Where the population density rises, whether in towns or in some densely inhabited rural areas, purity becomes of greater relative importance, not only because more people use each common source but also because dense rural settlement tends to be in high-rainfall areas. On the basis of evidence presented elsewhere, gastroenteric disorders appear to have both water-washed and waterborne components and reach their peak in overcrowded periurban zones where, fortunately, most can be done about them, though so far municipal authorities have paid more attention to purity than to availability of improved supplies. The diarrheal diseases and typhoid cause hospital admissions and death far more often than the superficial water-washed infections; they affect treatment costs more and also provide the bulk of lost work time and the economic losses from premature death. …

Internal migration and urban unemployment in low-income countries: a problem in simultaneous equations

Abstract: The problem THE analysis which follows derives from two nearly universal characteristics of the less-developed countries (LDCs). (1) Hfigh levels of urban unemployment. It has been widely reported that rates of urban unemployment range from 10 to 25 per cent or more in such heterogeneous countries as Pakistan, India, Egypt, Venezuela, Nigeria, Kenya, Tanzania, Puerto Rico, Ecuador, and Panama.2 The difficulties implicit in using the concept of open unemployment in low-income areas will be considered below. (2) The trend toward urbanization. The movement of great numbers of people from rural areas to cities may be observed in virtually all poor countries. Perhaps the most spectacular record was achieved in Latin America; in the decade of the fifties, it has been estimated that the Latin American urban population grew at an annual rate of 4-6 per cent while the rural total increased by only 1 6 per cent per year.3 Recent studies of the operation of LDC labour markets have investigated the theoretical relationship which exists between these two phenomena.4 It is not necessary to go into detail about these exercises since their conclusions are intuitively acceptable. Given economically rational behaviour, people are more inclined to move to the city ceteris paribus as the urban labour market becomes tighter. Such a response follows from the fact that, as the probability of finding employment rises, expected urban income increases. On the other hand, it would also be expected that

The rural and urban populations of Thailand: comparative profiles.

Abstract: This report utilizes data collected from rural and urban populations in Thailand during 1969 and 1970 by a survey titled the Longitudinal Study of Social Economic and Demographic Change in Thailand. Main subjects covered include population and household composition origins and mobility economic characteristics social characteristics and attitudes marriage and mate selection and fertility and family planning. Bangkok-Thonburi residents are the most modernized in their attributes attitudes and behavior and rural residents the least. Residents of provincial cities and towns usually fit somewhere in between but generally resemble their counterparts in the capital far more closely than they resemble the population of the countryside. Even though rural women have larger families than city women large numbers of both groups have 4 5 or more children. The average educational attainment of urban Thais is much higher than rural Thais (more than 50% of urban males had 5-12 years of school versus 10.9% of rural males) but there are still substantial numbers in each group who had no education or never went past elementary school. Even though fewer urban residents perform magical ceremonies to help their fortune substantial proportions of both groups do. The urban population of Thailand has been growing rapidly in the last few decades and has outpaced the rural population by a substantial margin. The fertility is measureably lower for urban dwellers (an average of 7.5 children for rural women 4.0 for Bangkok-Thonburi women). It appears that the fertility decline is already under way in the cities particularly among the younger generation. Contraceptive practice is far more frequently reported by urban respondents than by rural ones. The differentials in fertility levels and control are one more aspect of the greater modernization characterizing the urban population. Fertility is still high in the cities though and is sufficient to ensure rapid urban growth even in the absence of migration. So far internal migration in Thailand has been predominantly in the direction of the cities. The range of social and economic differences are wider in the cities and towns than in the countryside. The cities have the potential to serve as centers of diffusion of more modern ideas and attitudes.