Showing papers on "Rural area published in 1973"

Epidemiology of lead poisoning. A comparison between urban and rural children.

Abstract: Blood lead levels of 230 rural and 272 urban children were compared. Their mean age was 4 years. The mean blood lead level of the rural group was markedly lower than that of the urban group (22.8μg compared to 32.7 μg/100 ml). Nine percent of the rural children had laboratory evidence of "undue lead absorption" (blood lead level ≥ 40μg/100 ml), compared to 23% of the urban children. None of the demographic variables examined for the rural children could be related to the presence of blood lead levels greater than or equal to 40μg/100 ml. Testing of rural homes identified both interior and exterior paint as important sources of ingestible lead. Thus, lead poisoning could occur in rural areas and should be included in differential diagnosis of appropriate cases. Among urban children, lead in paint as well as airborne lead through contamination of soil may contribute to the increased body burden of lead.

Managing rural development

Abstract: This research, which was mainly concerned with the design and testing of management procedures for use by government servants in rural areas in Kenya, was carried out during 1971-73 in collaboration with Deryke Beishaw of the Overseas Development Group of the University of Norwich. It was linked with the Kenya government's Special Rural Development Programme (SRDP), an experimental programme undertaken in six parts of Kenya with objectives which included raising rural incomes and employment opportunities and sharpening the effectiveness of the government machine in rural areas.

Optimal School District Size Emphasizing Rural Areas

Abstract: Cost of providing elementary and secondary education is estimated for rural areas of Oklahoma. Unit cost curves are derived for instruction, admministration, plant operation and maintenance, buildings, equipment, and transportation. Optimal school district size, derived by combining these unit cost curves, varied by educational program and student density.

Economics of the size of North Carolina rural families.

Abstract: One of the best-attested generalizations in demography is the high fertility of rural populations relative to urban ones. For every state of the United States throughout the twentieth century, indeed for practically every Western country since the first half-reliable data have become available, the rule holds (see Jaffe 1942; Okun 1958, p. 94; Petersen 1969, p. 496). It is not viewed in the demographic literature as notably puzzling. Some writers in fact treat the lower fertility of the urbanized population almost as a postulate or definition: low fertility is part of the urban life-style. Neither do economists interested in fertility find larger rural families an especially perplexing phenomenon. Almost everyone would accept at least a loose economic explanation in terms of lower costs and greater pecuniary returns to child rearing on farms. Probably the most salient fact about the recent history of U.S. rural fertility is the erosion of the rural-urban differential since World War II.1 There is no lack of plausible explanations. The decline in the value of farm children as old-age support resulting from the extension of Social Security to farm operators, increasing opportunities for labor-force participation by farm women, the general relaxation of those characteristics of rural life traditionally conducive to larger family size such hypotheses would seem, prima facie, reasonable to most economists. Other social scientists would probably agree by and large, though some might want to put more weight on cultural or "taste" factors-for example, more

Rural Depopulation in Nineteenth Century England

Abstract: Much of the population growth in the rapidly expanding towns and industrial regions of nineteenth century England was initially promoted by migration from rural areas (Redford, 1926). Later, population in these industrial areas was largely self-sustaining, a youthful population structure contributing to a high rate of natural growth, but the increasing proportion of Englishmen who were town-dwellers also pointed to the draining of population from the countryside (table 9.1).

Recruiting physicians for rural practice

Abstract: A NUMBER of excellent studies have correlated the choice of a rural location for medical practice with certain characteristics of physicians (1-4). Researchers have shown that smalltown physicians are more likely to be the sons of farmers and to have grown up in a rural environment. But they are known also to be a group of older physicians, most of whom made their decision to locate some years ago. Therefore, the findings of Bible, Champion, Hassinger, and others on the reasons why physicians decide on a rural practice have to be considered as descriptions of the situation at a point in the recent past and not necessarily as the definitive answers to the question of what physicians might be looking for in a rural practice today. If ideas regarding recruitment of more physicians to rural areas are limited to what is suggested by the findings of this body of research, the prospects are anything but bright. For example, Parker and Tuxill in their study of metropolitan and smalltown physicians in an area of upstate New York found that the most important factors influencing those physicians who had gone into practice in a small community were the idea of living in a small community, the likelihood of developing a busy practice earlier, and their perception of the need of a small community for another physician (5). These researchers concluded that "the pool of new physicians then possibly interested in small-community practice seems largely restricted to physicians coming from small communities who like small-community living, feel the need for physicians in those communities, and wish to establish a busy practice early. With our present educational and population trends, this will be a small pool" 1(6). The question of what physicians may be looking for in a rural practice is interesting, but it is an important question only if the answers can be related in some way to an effective intervention strategy. If it were found that most health professionals (or their families) are looking for opera, professional football, or a local branch of Neiman Marcus, that would be interesting,(and discouraging for rural areas) but not terribly important. It is not possible to change the geography of the country, nor can we influence the marriages of physicians whose spouses may disagree with them over the importance of some of these factors. There are, however, some actions that may be taken in order to capitalize on the findings of research and maximize the pool of potential health professional recruits for rural areas. I shall Dr. Madison is associate professor of medical care organization, department of family medicine, School of Medicine; and director, rural services research unit, Health Services Research Center, University of North Carolina. The paper is based on his presentation to a symposium, "What Health Professionals Look For in a Rural Practice -A Researcher's Point of View," at the 26th National Conference on Rural Health of the American Medical Association, held in Dallas, Tex., March 29, 1973. Tearsheet requests to Donald L. Madison, MD, University of North Carolina School of Medicine, Chapel Hill, N.C. 27514.

Changing Family Structures among the Rural Hausa

Abstract: In predominantly agricultural society the family unit has remained a fundamental element underlying economic organization among the Hausa. There is however surprisingly little reference in the literature to the organization of this unit since it was described by Greenberg (1946; 1947) for pagan Hausa and by Smith (1955) for Moslems. This paper discusses those aspects of the family structure which are directly related to the organization of rural production. In particular it is concerned with the family farming unit which may be defined as those members of a kinship group who combine their farming operations under a common leadership and organization to form the basis for a common unit of domestic economy. Large family groups appear traditionally to have been accorded high prestige throughout Hausaland but evidence is accumulating to suggest that both their size and functions have declined. This tendency has been accompanied by a more widely recognized trend towards the individualization of land tenure rights. Together these trends suggest a revolution in the social fabric of rural Hausaland. Peasant farmers remain the main vehicle for agricultural development in the northern States and changes in family organization and land tenure are clearly important in shaping the pattern of development. A review of the literature illustrates some of the ways the family farming unit has changed with the spread of Islam into rural areas the abolition of slavery and the increasing impact of a monetary economy. Evidence is also presented from a case study in Sokoto to suggest that the decline of large family groups has been accelerated in densely populated rural areas where individual effort has been increasingly substituted for communal organization in rural production. (excerpt)

Some economic interpretations of case studies of urban migration in developing countries

Abstract: Selected field surveys of migrants and nonmigrants in rural and urban areas are examined in order to define the motives underlying internal migrations, especially those occurring in developing nations. Migration is a function of the absolute real per capita income differentials for each skill level or occupation and is a function of the job availability differentials for each skill level or occupation. Rural-urban migration continues until expected urban real income equals expected rural real income. Cost-of-living adjustments in these field studies should include consideration of payments in kind and imputed housing costs. Governmental migration policies in developing countries, which have to date encouraged migration from rural to urban areas, have led to an increase in urban unemployment. The minimum urban wage for unskilled labor has tended to rise much faster than the minimum or current agricultural wage, and the income differential between urban and rural unskilled workers has been increasing. Public and social service investments have been largely confined to urban areas, and rural communities have been neglected. Demographic and statistical data are included. Numerous references.

Thailand: fertility and family planning among rural and urban women.

Abstract: The Longitudinal Study of Social Economic and Demographic Change conducted by the Institute of Population Studies Chulalongkorn University is the first study to collect data on fertility and family planning as well as a wide variety of other topics from essentially national rural and urban samples in Thailand. This report examines some of the information gathered on fertility desire for additional children and knowledge attitude and practice of family planning from the 1969 rural and 1970 urban rounds of the survey. The data suggest that in Thailand as in many other developing countries the greatest need for family planning services exists in rural areas where the majority of the population live. Fertility is higher and contraceptive knowledge and practice are significantly lower in rural than in urban areas yet favorable attitudes toward family planning are as common as in provincial towns and the Bangkok-Thonburi metropolis. John Knodel is resident advisor of the Population Council at the Institute of Population Studies Chulalongkorn University Thailand; Pichit Pitaktepsombati is lecturer in the Faculty of Political Science and faculty research associate at the Institute of Population Studies Chulalongkorn University. Visid Prachuabmoh Sidney Goldstein Ralph Thomlinson and Lincoln Polissar made useful comments and suggestions during the preparation of this report; their help is gratefully acknowledged. Discussions of selected tables from this report at special seminars held at the Office of Population Research Princeton University the Population Council and the East-West Population Institute were also helpful in the reports preparation. (excerpt)

Urban-Rural Differences in the Relationship Between Women's Employment and Fertility: A Preliminary study

Abstract: A statistical study of data from the Egyptian census for 1960 points up the influence of the employment of women on their fertility. Results show that the child/woman ratio rises with the level of female employment in the rural areas but falls as the level of employment rises in the urban areas. Subject to confirmation by more detailed methods it seems that in urban areas provision of opportunities for women to work is of major importance in attempting to reduce national fertility levels but this will have the opposite effect to what is intended in rural areas. Rural and urban fertility levels appear to be similar at a low level of economic activity; however when this economic activity surpasses 10% a noticeable fertility differential appears. Industrial or commercial work opportunities change a womans pattern of living and are essential to the permanent lowering of fertility to replacement levels. (Authors modified)

Effect of Time on the Prevalence of Diabetes in the Urban African of Rhodesia

Abstract: A diabetes survey was conducted in the same African urban township as one done eleven years previously, together with a further survey in a rural area. In the urban survey the prevalence rate rose insignificantly from 0.10 per cent to 0.28 per cent, while no diabetes was discovered in the rural study. A minimal increase of new diabetics was seen during the same period in both the medical wards and obstetric unit, but the disease has not reached the proportions seen either in Europeans or indeed in Africans from certain parts of Southern Africa. A lack of coronary artery disease in diabetes is emphasized. These findings are discussed in the light of experience elsewhere, and some etiologic factors are suggested.

The Isfahan communications project.

Abstract: The Isfahan communication project began in May 1970 with the collecting of basesline data about the population and ended with an evaluation of accomplishments in June 1971. The objective was to prepare an intensive communications campaign and to study the impact of this campaign on knowledge attitudes and practice of family planning in Isfahan Ostan iran a province of 2 inhabitants. During 1970 the typical female acceptor was 32 years old had 5 children thought the ideal number 4 and wanted no more. During the start of the study a presurvey to 1000 married individuals was carried out. Men reported an ideal family size of 3.8 women 3.7. 83 percent expressed approval of family planning 79 percent desired information on and 80 percent knew some method of contraception while only 41 percent had ever used a method. Those who were modern in consumption habits educational background or occupation displayed favorable attitudes toward family planning and professed to have practiced it but were not successful in limiting family size and thus were regarded as a primary target for a media campaign. Protests of contraceptive messages were made via slogans poster pamphlets leaflets and radio spots. The mass communications project lasted 6 months starting August 21 1970. During the first 3 months of radio campaign alone total acceptors increased 18 percent and during the next 3 months use of all media rose to 54 percent. A postcampaign survey showed that mass media was most effective in the cities and among women. Radio was cited as the most important source of information on contraceptives by 26 percent of clinic acceptors during the radio campaign and 39 percent during the all media campaign. The functionary project was undertaken to identify and mobilize people of respect in the community. With training proper organization and incentives they could perform educational services serve as local sources of contraceptives and implement schemes of benefits to those who limit their fertility. The project contributed much to forming a model program for design and evaluation of mass media campaigns.

The relation of community context to utilization of health services in a rural area.

Abstract: This research was designed to determine the relationship between availability of health services to pattern of use of health services in a rural area. Households in four rural Ozark communities with different levels of health services were surveyed. It was expected that use of services would be directly related to services available within the communities. The hypothesis was not supported by the data which showed similar patterns of utilization of health services for the four communities. The application of age and income controls did not change the results. Our interpretation is that there is a common normative pattern of health behavior in the four communities. On the basis of this normative stance, people will exert considerable effort and utilize scarce resources in order to obtain medical services deemed to be needed in a given situation. The findings have important implications for the delivery of health services in rural areas. They suggest that some latitude may exist in the location of health services without affecting the level of use of services.

Food consumption of low-income, rural Negro households in Mississippi.

Abstract: How do low-income, Negro families in the South spend their food dollar? This study reports a survey in three counties in Mississippi.

Education and Political Participation in Rural Areas of Latin America

Abstract: decision-making. The present contribution of formal schooling to the political participation of rural populations in Latin America, in general, is either minimal or negative. I suggest that a broad range of alternative institutions and agencies-the mass media, peasant syndicates, community action groups, extension and training organizations-have the potential for developing the self-concepts, competencies, and knowledge necessary for individuals to participate in the decision-making process to influence and alter existing social and political arrangements. The effectiveness of these alternative education institutions in contributing to substantial expansion of opportunities for rural populations depends on fundamental changes in the social and political structures of a society.' At the same time, political development principally depends on the ideology and capacities of a political regime, and not on the education system. Once fundamental political change has occurred, then it is possible for an education system to become an effective instrument for overcoming social inequalities and promoting the participation of the broad masses of people in their society.

Estimation of Rural Demand for Natural Gas

Abstract: The Government of Alberta has undertaken a study to determine the feasibility of supplying natural gas to rural areas of the Province not currently served. The study covers various aspects relevant to the development of an overall plan for rural gasification, but the emphasis is on major factors affecting the economic viability of the venture. We discuss in this paper one segment of the study—the problem of determining the demand for natural gas in rural areas. Three separate demand schedules, each based on a different methodology but using common data obtained from a survey of rural residents, are estimated. The three demand schedules are analysed and compared in an attempt to establish an overall demand curve for natural gas in rural Alberta. The price elasticity of demand for natural gas is determined from the demand function obtained.

The Effects of Labor Emigration on Rural Life in Malawi

Abstract: Great numbers of Malawians have emigrated from their predominantly rural country during the past 80 years to search for work throughout East Central and Southern Africa. The Ministry of Labor Report (1962-67) indicated that between 1948-62 a total of 544000 men 70000 women and 70000 juveniles had gone to Southern Rhodesia; between 1953-67 approximately 360000 men went to South Africa; and during those years roughly 69000 men 25000 women and 30000 juveniles had made the journey to neighboring Zambia. Smaller numbers have traveled to Mozambique Zaire and Tanzania but the total number of Malawians affected by emigration during the 20th century numbers into the millions. Early accounts of the exodus emphasized the suffering in rural areas resulting from the absence of so many men. This paper while not denying this fact suggests that the disastrous effects may have been exaggerated initially that communal institutions absorbed some of the social shock and that after the mid 1930s interterritorial labor agreements mitigated the worst economic consequences of emigration. The number of men who could be away from home at any 1 time without causing undue distress to village life has been the topic of diverse estimates. Van Velsen figured that 60-75% of Tonga adult men were absent but stated that there were no serious signs of disorganization in Tonga society. A Belgian Congo Commission reported that not more than 5% of the men could be absent for long periods without adversely affecting local life. Since most migrant analysts concur that the primary motive behind Malawian emigration is economic encouraging the planning of cash crops must be the proper inducement for men to remain at home. Malawis 1939 Labor Department Report stated that "emigration is unjust to women in every way" but the songs of the women reveal a less dogmatic attitude toward the traveling of their menfolk. Throughout the 20th century governmental authorities have sought ways to control "free flow" independent emigration which has been more popular than contractual arrangements. Malawians always preferred to choose their own employer rather than to offer themselves to the merices of recruiting agents but controls were needed. The entire question of the internal effects of labor migration on Malawis social and economic development needs further study. The relationship of migrants to the governments long range plans to replace traditional land tenure arrangements with private ownerhsip of land is a vital area of study.

Urban and rural Arabic in Khūzistān

Abstract: It has been frequently noted by linguists and other observers that in many parts of the Arabic-speaking world, the speech patterns of any one region divide quite sharply into two groups—that of the towns on the one hand, and that of the surrounding countryside on the other. The following is an attempt to show the relationship of two dialects of Arabic spoken in the province of Khūzistān in Iran which can be considered to be representative of urban and rural groups within their area.