scispace - formally typeset
Search or ask a question

Showing papers on "Rural area published in 1997"


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this paper, a review of evidence provides some surprising departures from traditional images of non-farm activities of rural households, and the most worrying finding was the poor distribution of nonfarm earnings in rural areas, despite the importance of these earnings to food security and farm investments.

1,020 citations


Book
01 Jan 1997
TL;DR: The sustainability of tourism and recreation in rural areas has been studied in this paper, with a focus on image and re-imagining of rural areas. Butler et al. discuss the role of tourism in tourism and economic development in rural regions.
Abstract: CONTINUITY AND CHANGE IN RURAL TOURISM. TOURISM AND RECREATION POLICY DIMENSIONS. The Policy Dimensions of Rural Tourism and Recreation (C. Michael Hall & J. Jenkins). The Restructuring of Rural Economies: Rural Tourism and Recreation as a Government Response (J. Jenkins, et al.). Rural Tourism Development: Canadian Provincial Issues (D. Reid). Rural Tourism in Otago and Southland, New Zealand (G. Kearsley). Local and Resort Development (A. Gill). IMAGE AND REIMAGING OF RURAL AREAS. Image and Reimaging of Rural Areas (R. Butler & C. Hall). Images of Heritage in Rural Regions (J.-M. Dewailly). Commodifying the Countryside: Marketing Myths of Rurality (J. Hopkins). Rural Festivals and Community Reimaging (R. Janiskee & P. Drews). SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC DYNAMICS. Rural Landholder Attitudes: The Case of Public Recreational Access to 'Private' Rural Lands (J. Jenkins & E. Prin). Wine Tourism in Australia and New Zealand (C. Hall & N. Macionis). Farm Tourism in New Zealand (M. Oppermann). The Significance of Tourism and Economic Development in Rural Areas: A Norwegian Cast Study (J. Saeter). CONCLUSIONS. Conclusion: The Sustainability of Tourism and Recreation in Rural Areas (R. Butler & C. Hall). Index.

394 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors compared the rates of asthma symptoms and atopy in urban populations in Jimma, southwest Ethiopia, at an early stage of economic development with those among the population of remote, rural, subsistence areas, and assessed the potential role of environmental aetiological factors leading to the differences.

387 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: The combination of increased risk and less willingness to seek assistance places men living in small towns and villages in particular jeopardy for continuing problems involving depressed mood.
Abstract: The implications of exposure to acute and chronic stressors, and seeking mental health care, for increased psychological distress are examined. Research on economic stress, psychological distress, and rural agrarian values each point to increasing variability within rural areas. Using data from a panel study of 1,487 adults, a model predicting changes in depressive symptoms was specified and tested. Results show effects by size of place for men but not for women. Men living in rural villages of under 2,500 or in small towns of 2,500 to 9,999 people had significantly greater increases in depressive symptoms than men living in the country or in larger towns or cities. Size of place was also related to level of stigma toward mental health care. Persons living in the most rural environments were more likely to hold stigmatized attitudes toward mental health care and these views were strongly predictive of willingness to seek care. The combination of increased risk and less willingness to seek assistance places men living in small towns and villages in particular jeopardy for continuing problems involving depressed mood.

290 citations


Book
01 Jan 1997
TL;DR: Teaching the Commons as mentioned in this paper examines philosophical assumptions and charts their evolution into conventional wisdom about how human beings should meet their needs, govern themselves, and educate their children, finding that if there is sufficient interest in saving what is left of rural America, an educational agenda at the local level needs to be embraced by America's rural schools.
Abstract: Reaching all the way back to the classical and medieval past, Teaching the Commons chronicles ideas and resulting policies that have shaped contemporary rural life and living in much of the industrial West. The book examines philosophical assumptions and charts their evolution into conventional wisdom about how human beings should meet their needs, govern themselves, and educate their children. Further, this book examines how policies emanating from these assumptions have slowly eroded the vitality of rural communities, finding that if there is sufficient interest in saving what is left of rural America, an educational agenda at the local level needs to be embraced by America's rural schools.Using concrete ideas generated in rural schools across the country, Teaching the Commons demonstrates that it is possible to simultaneously revitalize rural schools and communities. Through concerted curricular and pedagogical attention to place?the immediate locality?schools can contribute to rebuilding community in rural America on an educational foundation.Arguing that vital, self-governing communities rather than self-interested individuals represent the greatest hope for American democracy, Teaching the Commons lays out an institutional foundation that would turn the cultivation of civic virtue into an educational goal every bit as important and attainable as education for success in the economic market.

287 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: This article explored how an imagining of the countryside as an idealised place in which to grow up is constructed, mobilised and contested by rural parents in their accounts of their children's lives.

285 citations


01 Dec 1997
TL;DR: The 1996-97 Demographic and Health Survey in Bangladesh as discussed by the authors showed that fertility was about 60% higher in rural areas than urban areas and women with no education had higher fertility compared to women with at least some secondary education.
Abstract: This report presents the full findings of the 1996-97 Demographic and Health Survey in Bangladesh. Findings were based on a nationally representative sample of 9127 ever married women aged 10-49 years and 3312 currently married men aged 15-59 years. Information is provided on introductory backgrounds of government policies government programs and research methods; household and respondent characteristics; fertility and fertility regulation; proximate determinants; fertility preferences; infant and child mortality; maternal and child health; infant feeding childhood and maternal nutrition; knowledge of AIDS; and availability of health and family planning services. Appendices include among other items the questionnaire. Findings indicate that fertility declined only slightly from 1991-93 to 1994-96 from 3.3 to 3.4 births/woman. Fertility was much higher in Sylhet and Chittagong Divisions and much lower in Rajshahi and Khulna Divisions. Fertility was about 60% higher in rural areas. Fertility was higher among women with no education (3.9) compared to women with at least some secondary education (2.1). The data confirm that couples now accept a small family norm. 60% of ever married women preferred a 2-child family. An additional 20% desired 3 children. The percentage of women with 2 children who wanted no more children increased from 39% to 50% between 1991 and 1996-97. About 33% of births in the preceding 3 years were unplanned 20% were mistimed and 11% were unwanted. Modern method use among married women increased to 42%. There was a shift away from permanent methods.

256 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: This study in rural Punjab confirms the findings of a previous study in Chitral, northern Pakistan, of high levels of emotional distress and psychiatric morbidity among women in rural areas of Pakistan.
Abstract: BACKGROUND The prevalence of psychiatric disorders in rural Punjab is unknown Previous studies in rural areas elsewhere in the Indian subcontinent have yielded widely differing estimates METHOD First-stage screening of a village near Gujar Khan used the Bradford Somatic Inventory and Self Reporting Questionnaire Psychiatric interviews were conducted with stratified samples using the ICD-10 Diagnostic Criteria for Research RESULTS It is estimated that 66% of women and 25% of men suffered from anxiety and depressive disorders Levels of emotional distress increased with age in both genders Women living in unitary households reported more distress than those living in extended or joint families With younger men and women, lower levels of education were associated with greater risk of psychiatric disorders Social disadvantage was associated with more emotional distress CONCLUSIONS This study in rural Punjab confirms that findings of a previous study in Chitral, northern Pakistan, of high levels of emotional distress and psychiatric morbidity among women in rural areas of Pakistan

223 citations


Book
30 Sep 1997
TL;DR: In this article, the authors provide a sourcebook to aid decision makers as they create environments conducive to the development of rural financial markets. But, the focus of the report is on the traditional approach to rural finance, which relied heavily on supply-led, state-owned agricultural credit institutions.
Abstract: This report is intended to serve as a sourcebook to aid decisionmakers as they create environments conducive to the development of rural financial markets. As a sourcebook, it explores both the traditional and new approaches that governments have taken to rural finance. First, the report outlines the traditional approach to rural finance, which relied heavily on supply-led, state-- owned agricultural credit institutions. Second, it highlights how widespread, urban-based policies impeded rural development and the promotion of rural financial markets. These policies included overvalued exchange rates, inflexible price controls on food produce, underinvestment in rural infrastructure, and protection of domestic industries against import competition. The report then illustrates the emerging new approach, which focuses on creating a favorable policy environment in terms of the macroeconomy, agricultural and financial sectors, rural development, and the legal and regulatory framework. Moving to the institutional level, the report offers two primary criteria -- outreach and self-sustainability -- as the bases for assessing the performance of rural financial institutions. It reviews and analyzes the modes of operation and performance of three successful rural institutions in Bangladesh, Thailand, and Indonesia. These three case studies provide insights for the design of future interventions.

219 citations


Book
01 Dec 1997
TL;DR: The process which went into writing the book has certainly been an interactive one over the last twenty years as discussed by the authors, and it started in northern Ghana in 1976, where I went with my family to do fieldwork for a PhD on the development of largescale mechanised rice farming.
Abstract: Writing books is almost a luxury at the end of the twentieth century. The next generation may be writing interactive computer programmes. This book might have been better as an interactive programme, as in the kind of a paradigm shift currently under way in rural development there is so much to discuss and debate, and so many people are qualified to contribute. The process which went into writing the book has certainly been an interactive one over the last twenty years. It started in northern Ghana in 1976, where I went with my family to do fieldwork for a PhD on the development of largescale mechanised rice farming. It continued with twelve years' work, on and off, in the Sudan, including a spell as a UNICEF officer. During those years I worked as an academic on famine and food security, rural development programmes, pastoralism and irrigation schemes, and the development of large-scale mechanised sorghum production. For UNICEF I developed a women's development programme and had involvements with health, water and sanitation and relief work. Again my family were with me. In the early 19908 I worked more widely in the Horn of Africa on food security and development in conflict situations. Since then my major focus has been on public sector rural development in India. I also spent many days between 1991 and 1995 working as a committee member for Comic Reliefs Africa Grants, giving me an insight into the operations of NGOs. During most of this time I have been a part-time small-scale organic farmer in the Welsh borders with my partner, Hilary, who has served as secretary to British Organic Farmers: this experience has also helped form some of the ideas in this book.

204 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors extend the Carlino and Mills and Boarnet models of local development to test for the presence and direction of rural area linkages to urban areas in Functional Economic Areas (FEAs).
Abstract: In this article we extend the Carlino and Mills and Boarnet models of local development to test for the presence and direction of rural area linkages to urban areas in Functional Economic Areas (FEAs). In a sample of southern FEAs, we detect a mix of spillover and backwash effects from urban core and fringe areas to their rural hinterlands. Rural-area population and employment both grew faster than average between 1980 and 1990 if in an FEA with a pattern of urban decentralization.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: Data analysis indicated that although a majority of the women reported adequate resources, there was a group of women for whom resources for basic needs were not always adequate and women with HIV who had not progressed to AIDS had greater difficulty in obtaining a number of resources.
Abstract: A growing number of cases of HIV infection are being diagnosed in rural communities especially among women. Although HIV-specific education and care delivery programs have been focused on rural areas in recent years, limited data are available on the impact of such initiatives on the lives of women with HIV infection. The purpose of this study was to examine characteristics of women with HIV disease living in rural communities. The study used a cross-sectional sample of rural women in Georgia. Data analysis indicated that although a majority of the women reported adequate resources, there was a group of women for whom resources for basic needs were not always adequate. Additionally, women with HIV who had not progressed to AIDS had greater difficulty in obtaining a number of resources. Almost half of the women felt stigmatized due to having HIV. Yet, a high percentage of these women had disclosed their HIV status to health care workers, sexual partners, and family. Study results provide insight into the needs of HIV-infected rural women from their perspective. This information can be important to nurses working in public health and community settings as they face the challenge of developing effective health care services for this population.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: Responsibility and transport times among professional, advanced life-support-trained paramedics responding to major trauma incidents are longer in rural areas, compared with urban areas.
Abstract: Objectives: To compare differences in response times, scene times, and transport times by advanced life-support-trained paramedics to trauma incidents in urban and rural locations. Methods: This report was a prospective cohort study of professional emergency medical services conducted in a five-county area in the state of Washington. Ninety-eight percent of trauma transports are provided by professional paramedics trained in advanced life support. Subjects were included in this study if they qualified as a major trauma victim and were transported or found dead at the scene by one of the region's advanced life support transport agencies between August 1, 1991, and January 31, 1992. The severity of injury was rated using the Prehospital Index. Incident locations were defined as rural if they occurred in a US Census division (a geographic area) in which more than 50% of the residents resided in a rural location. Results: During the 6-month data collection period, advanced life support agencies responded to a total of 459 major trauma victims in the region. A geographic location was determined for 452 of these subjects. Of these, 42% of subjects were injured in urban areas and the remainder in rural areas. The severity of injuries, as determined both by the triage classification (p = 0.17) and the distribution of Prehospital Index scores (p = 0.92), was similar for urban and rural major trauma patients. Twenty-six (5.7%) subjects died at the scene. About one quarter of both groups had a severe injury, as indicated by Prehospital Index score of more than 3. The mean response time for urban locations was 7.0 minutes (median = 6 minutes) compared with 13.6 minutes (median = 12 minutes) for rural locations (p < 0.0001). The mean scene time in rural areas was slightly longer than in urban areas (21.7 vs. 18.7 minutes, p = 0.015). Mean transport times from the scene to the hospital were also significantly longer for rural incidents (17.2 minutes vs. 8.2 minutes, p < 0.0001). Rural victims were over seven times more likely to die before arrival (relative risk = 7.4, 95% confidence interval 2.4-22.8) if the emergency medical services' response time was more than 30 minutes. Conclusions: Response and transport times among professional, advanced life-support-trained paramedics responding to major trauma incidents are longer in rural areas, compared with urban areas.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this paper, a framework is set out for estimating the effects of interventions on child health that considers changes in the allocation of family resources, who among children survive (survival selectivity), and change in the health of surviving children net of the family resources.

Journal Article
TL;DR: This paper reviewed the literature on rural education and at-risk students in order to determine what the literature reveals about the combined influence of "poverty" and "community type" on placing students at risk.
Abstract: The purpose ofthis report is to review the research on ruraleducation and at-risk students in order to determine what the literature reveals about thecombined influence of "poverty" and "community type" (in this case rural communities) on placing students at risk. Wefirst compare outcomesfor students in poor, rural schools withoutcomesfor students in poor, urban schools in order to determinewhetherpoverty alone affects student outcomes, or whether location also plays a role. Next, we explore the ways in which rural location andpoverty may put students at risk ofeducationalfailure. We draw some preliminary conclusions about students in poor, rural schools, and make anumberofresearch recommenda­ tions for the National Institute on the EducationofAt-Risk Students in the area ofrural education.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: Increased age, higher socioeconomic class, and higher WHR were proven to be independent risk factors for glucose intolerance in either area, and the prevalence of NIDDM among urban subjects did not differ significantly from that among rural subjects.
Abstract: OBJECTIVE To compare the prevalence of diabetes between the poor and rich of rural and urban populations in Bangladesh. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS A total of 1,052 subjects from urban and 1,319 from rural communities (age ≥ 20 years) of different socioeconomic classes were investigated. Capillary blood glucose levels, fasting and 2 h after a 75-g glucose drink (2-h blood glucose [BG]), were measured. Height, weight, waist, hips, and blood pressure were also measured. RESULTS Age-adjusted (30–64 years) prevalence of NIDDM was higher in urban (7.97% with 95% CI 6.17–9.77) than in rural subjects (3.84%, CI 2.61–5.07), whereas impaired glucose tolerance (IGT) prevalence was higher in rural subjects. In either urban or rural areas, the highest prevalence of NIDDM was observed among the rich, and the lowest prevalence was observed among the poor socioeconomic classes. The rural rich had much higher prevalence of IGT than their urban counterpart (16.5 vs. 4.4%, CI 6.8–17.4). Increased age was an important risk factor for IGT and NIDDM in both rural and urban subjects, whereas the risk related to higher BMI and waist-to-hip ratio (WHR) was less significant in rural than urban subjects. Using logistic regression and adjusting for age, sex, and social class, the urban subjects had no excess risk for NIDDM. In contrast, an excess risk for glucose intolerance (2-h BG ≥ 7.8 mmol/l) was observed in the rural subjects. CONCLUSIONS Adjusting for age, sex, and social class, the prevalence of NIDDM among urban subjects did not differ significantly from that among rural subjects. Increased age, higher socioeconomic class, and higher WHR were proven to be independent risk factors for glucose intolerance in either area.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: The data indicate a low prevalence of diabetes in Cameroon; however, the prevalence of impaired glucose tolerance suggests an early stage of a diabetes epidemic.
Abstract: The adoption of Western lifestyles is known to lead to increasing prevalence of non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus in Africa, yet epidemiological studies using standardised methods are rare. The prevalence of diabetes and impaired glucose tolerance was determined in a rural and an urban community in Cameroon using the 75-g oral glucose tolerance test and the World Health Organization diagnostic criteria in 719 rural (292 men, 427 women) and 1048 urban (458 men, 590 women) subjects aged 24–74 years. The response rate was 95 and 91 % for the rural and urban population, respectively. The age-standardized prevalence of diabetes in the rural and urban population was respectively 0.9 % (95 % confidence interval (0.2–2.7)) and 0.8 % (0.2–1.8) for men and 0.5 % (0.1–1.6) and 1.6 % (0.7–3.1) for women, and that of impaired glucose tolerance was 5.8 % (3.3–9.4) and 1.8 % (0.9–3.2) for men, and for women, 2.2 % (1.0–4.0) and 2.0 % (0.6–4.5). Although for both men and women the body mass index was higher at all ages in the urban than in the rural area, the 2-h plasma glucose, even after adjustment for age and body mass index, was significantly higher in the rural than in the urban area (p < 0.005, p < 0.002 for men and women, respectively). There was a female excess of diabetes in the urban area and an equal sex distribution in the rural area. In the rural area 67 % (4 of 6) of diabetic subjects were unknown before the survey, compared with 57 % (8 of 14) in the urban area. These data indicate a low prevalence of diabetes in Cameroon; however, the prevalence of impaired glucose tolerance suggests an early stage of a diabetes epidemic. [Diabetologia (1997) 40: 824–829]

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: Coronary artery disease and coronary risk factors were two or three times higher among the urban compared with the rural subjects, which may be due to greater sedentary behaviour and alcohol intake among urbans.
Abstract: Objective This study was conducted to determine and compare the prevalence of coronary artery disease and coronary risk factors in both a rural and an urban population of Moradabad in north India. Design and setting A cross-sectional survey of two randomly selected villages from the Moradabad district and 20 randomly selected streets in the city of Moradabad. Subjects and methods The 3575 subjects were between 25 and 64 years old; 1769 (894 men and 875 women) lived in the countryside and 1806 (904 men and 902 women) lived in the city. The survey methods were questionnaires, physical examination and electrocardiography. Results The overall prevalence of coronary artery disease, based on a clinical diagnosis and an electrocardiogram, was 9·0% in the urban and 3·3% in the rural population. The prevalences were significantly ( P <0·001) higher in the men compared with the women in both urban (11·0 vs 6·9%) and rural (3·9 vs 2·6%) populations, respectively. The prevalence of symptomatic coronary artery disease (known coronary disease and Rose questionnaire-positive angina) was 23% in the men (n=19) and 1·5% in the women (n=13) in the rural subjects, and 8·5% in the men (n=77) and 3·4% in the women (n=31) in the urban population. When diagnosed on the basis of electrocardiographic changes alone, the prevalences were 1·5% (n=26) in the rural population and 3·0% (n=55) in the urban. Coronary risk factors were two- or three-fold more common among urban subjects compared to the rural population in both sexes. Central obesity was four times more common in the urban population compared to the rural in both sexes. Sedentary lifestyle and alcohol intake were significantly ( P <0·01) higher in the urban population compared to the rural subjects. There was a significant association between coronary disease and age, hypercholesterolaemia, hypertension and central obesity in both sexes. Smoking was a significant risk factor of coronary disease in men. Conclusions Coronary artery disease and coronary risk factors were two or three times higher among the urban compared with the rural subjects, which may be due to greater sedentary behaviour and alcohol intake among urbans. It is possible that some Indian populations can benefit by reducing serum cholesterol, blood pressure and central obesity and increasing physical activity.

Journal ArticleDOI
07 Jun 1997-BMJ
TL;DR: The one child family policy in China was introduced in 1979 and has remained in force ever since, beneficial in terms of curbing population growth, aiding economic growth, and improving the health and welfare of women and children.
Abstract: Rapid population growth in China during the 1950s and '60s led to the "late, long, few" policy of the 1970s and a dramatic reduction in the total fertility rate. However, population growth remained too high for the economic targets of Deng Xiao Ping's reforms, so the one child family policy was introduced in 1979 and has remained in force ever since. The strategy is different in urban and rural areas, and implementation varies from place to place depending on local conditions. The policy has been beneficial in terms of curbing population growth, aiding economic growth, and improving the health and welfare of women and children. On the negative side there are concerns about demographic and sex imbalance and the psychological effects for a generation of only children in the cities. The atrocities often associated with the policy, such as female infanticide, occur rarely now. China may relax the policy in the near future, probably allowing two children for everyone.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: Rural students are currently at risk approximately equal to that of urban students, and policy alterations and health education programs should address this pattern in the nation's rural areas.
Abstract: OBJECTIVES: This study compared prevalence of substance use among high school seniors in rural and urban areas from 1976 through 1992. METHODS: We used data collected for these years from urban (n = 75,916) and rural (n = 51,182) high school seniors. Thirty-day prevalence for alcohol, cigarettes, marijuana, cocaine, LSD, and inhalant use, binge drinking, smoking a pack or more of cigarettes a day, and daily alcohol and marijuana use were evaluated. RESULTS: Substance use declined from 1976 through 1992. In 1976, urban students had greater prevalence for most substances, but by 1992, rural and urban students were similar, with rural students having higher prevalence for alcohol and cigarette use (particularly excessive use). Trends were similar for both sexes, though rural girls showed a later catch-up to use levels of urban girls. CONCLUSIONS: Rural students are currently at risk approximately equal to that of urban students. Other studies have demonstrated the association of substance use with increased ...

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: These data indicate low utilization of formal medical services by injured persons in this developing nation, and even many of those with severe injuries do not receive medical care, especially in rural areas.
Abstract: Background: Assessment of the societal importance of trauma relies, in large part, on hospital and other health service data. Such data are of limited value in developing nations if a significant proportion of injured persons do not receive formal medical care. Methods: We undertook an epidemiologic study of trauma in Ghana. Via household visits, we surveyed 21,105 persons living in 432 urban and rural sites. Results: During the preceding year, there had been 13 fatal injuries (62 per 100,000) and 1,597 nonfatal injuries resulting in ≥ 1 days of lost activity (7 per 100). Of the fatally injured, only 31% received formal medical care (hospital or clinic). Of the nonfatal injuries, 58% received formal care, but with major differences between urban and rural sites. Only 51% of rural injured received formal medical care, compared with 68% of urban injured (p < 0.001). Even among those with more severe injuries (disability time ≥ 1 month), 26% of rural injured never had formal care. Overall hospital use was especially low, with only 27% of all injured persons using hospital services. Among those with more severe injuries, 60% of urban, but only 38% of rural injured received hospital care (p < 0.001). Conclusions: These data indicate low utilization of formal medical services by injured persons in this developing nation. Even many of those with severe injuries do not receive medical care, especially in rural areas. Assumptions that rely on health service data, especially hospital data, underestimate the importance of trauma. Appropriate commitment of health care resources might thus be affected. Population based data are needed to fully assess the extent and societal impact of injuries in developing nations.

Journal Article
TL;DR: Prevalences of a family history of coronary heart disease, hypertension, obesity and diabetes mellitus were significantly higher in the urban than in the rural population, and smoking was commoner among rural men and women.
Abstract: A community-based epidemiological survey of coronary heart disease and its risk factors was carried out over the period 1984-87 on a random sample of adults aged 25-64 years: 13,723 adults living in Delhi and 3375 in adjoining rural areas. ECG examination and analysis of fasting blood samples for lipids were performed on subjects with the disease and asymptomatic adults free of clinical manifestations. The overall prevalence of coronary heart disease among adults based on clinical and ECG criteria was estimated at 96.7 per 1000 and 27.1 per 1000 in the urban and rural populations, respectively. Prevalences of a family history of coronary heart disease, hypertension, obesity and diabetes mellitus were significantly higher in the urban than in the rural population, and smoking was commoner among rural men and women. Mean levels of total serum cholesterol and low density lipoprotein cholesterol were higher among urban subjects; the mean level of triglycerides was higher in rural subjects. The proportions with total cholesterol levels > 190 mg/dl were 44.1% and 23.0% in urban and rural men, respectively, and 50.1% and 23.9% among urban and rural women, respectively. High density lipoprotein cholesterol levels < 35 mg/dl were found in 2.2% of urban men and 8.0% of rural men compared with 1.6% and 3.5% among urban and rural women, respectively. An abnormal ECG pattern (Q wave or ST-T changes) in asymptomatic individuals is also considered to be a risk factor for coronary heart disease. In asymptomatic adults, 1.7% of urban men and 1.2% of urban women showed abnormal Q waves compared with 0.3% of rural men and 0.4% of rural women. A higher proportion of asymptomatic women showed ST-T changes in both populations. Rural men and women had higher total calorie and saturated fat intakes than urban subjects. Differences in dietary cholesterol intake were marginal. Sodium intake was greater in urban adults. Average daily consumption of alcohol by urban men was 12.7 ml ethanol compared with 2.4 ml in rural men.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors highlight the ways in which the scale and severity of urban poverty has been under-estimated and suggest that too little attention has been given to addressing the health burden associated with poverty.
Abstract: This paper seeks to highlight the ways in which the scale and severity of urban poverty has been under-estimated--but it is not seeking to make judgements about the relative scale or depth of `urban poverty in comparison to `rural poverty. Thus any implicit or explicit recommendations within the paper that governments and development assistance agencies should give more attention to poverty reduction in urban areas should not be taken as a recommendation that attention be shifted from rural to urban poverty. Where comparisons are made between rural and urban poverty or the ways that rural and urban poverty are understood it is to highlight how the understanding or measurement of poverty in urban areas has failed to take due note of costs or of forms of deprivation that are evident in some (or most) urban areas. This is also not intended as a demand that attention be shifted from rural to urban poverty. Its suggestion that too little attention has been given to addressing the health burden associated with `poverty probably has as much if not more relevance for rural populations as for urban populations. (authors)

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: To determine comparative prevalence rates, demographics, phenomenology, seizure classification, presumptive etiology, treatment status, and selected socioan‐thropological aspects of epilepsy in Pakistan and Turkey.
Abstract: Summary: Purpose: To determine comparative prevalence rates, demographics, phenomenology, seizure classification, presumptive etiology, treatment status, and selected socioan-thropological aspects of epilepsy in Pakistan and Turkey. Methods: A population-based, cross-cultural comparative study of epilepsy was designed with identical protocols to be performed simultaneously in Pakistan and Turkey. The essential feature of the design was an unselected population, with reference to their previous medical contact, and use of standardized International Community-Based Epilepsy Research Group (ICBERG) protocols to assess cross-cultural differences. Results: In all, 24,130 persons in Pakistan and 11,497 persons in Turkey (both urban and rural, of all ages and both sexes) were studied. The crude prevalence rate of epilepsy was 9.98 in 1,000 in Pakistan and 7.0 in 1,000 in Turkey (14.8 in 1,000 in rural and 7.4 in 1,000 in urban areas of Pakistan; 8.8 in 1,000 in rural and 4.5 in 1,000 in urban areas of Turkey). In both countries, epilepsy was twice as prevalent in rural areas than in urban areas. Mean age of onset of epilepsy was 13.3 years in Pakistan and 12.9 years in Turkey. Overall frequency of seizure types was similar in both countries, with no urban/rural differences. The frequency distribution in Pakistan and Turkey, respectively, was as follows: generalized tonic-clonic, 80.5 and 65.4%; simple partial, 5 and 7.4%; complex partial, 5 and 12.3%; generalized absence, 0.8 and 4.9%; tonic and atonic, 5.8 and 3.7% each; and myoclonic, 5.8 and 1.2%. A putative cause for the epilepsy could be attributed in 38.4% of cases in Pakistan and 35.7% of cases in Turkey. Only 3% of patients in Pakistan, but 71% of patients in Turkey, believed that their illness was due to supernatural causes. The treatment status was very poor. In Pakistan, 27.5% of people with epilepsy in urban areas and 1.9% of people with epilepsy in rural areas were receiving antiepileptic drugs (AEDs) at the time of the survey. In, Turkey 30% of patients were receiving AEDs (marginally higher in rural areas). Conclusions: The prevalence of epilepsy is slightly higher in Pakistan than in Turkey; some marginal differences in age and sex distribution, are not statistically significant. The results are comparable to those in Ecuador, where the same epidemiologic protocol was used.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: Born in the Country as discussed by the authors is the only general history of rural America published, focusing on the changes in agriculture and rural life since 1945, including the alarming decline of agriculture as a productive enterprise and the parallel disintegration of farm families into demographic insignificance.
Abstract: Born in the Country was the first-and is still the only-general history of rural America published. Ranging from pre-Columbian times to the enormous changes of the twentieth century, Born in the Country masterfully integrates agricultural, technological, and economic themes with new questions social historians have raised about the American experience-including the different experiences of whites and blacks, men and women, natives and new immigrants. In this second edition, David B. Danbom expands and deepens his coverage of the late twentieth and early twenty-first centuries, focusing on the changes in agriculture and rural life since 1945. He discusses the alarming decline of agriculture as a productive enterprise and the parallel disintegration of farm families into demographic insignificance. In a new and provocative afterword, Danbom reflects on whether a distinctive style of rural life exists any longer. Combining mastery of existing scholarship with a fresh approach to new material, Born in the Country continues to define the field of American rural history.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: Health service providers in rural areas need to understand differences and difficulties when offering services to impact on rural dwellers' well-being.
Abstract: Attitudes to health and illness may differ between rural and urban dwellers. Issues that may relate to the provision of health services to rural dwellers are raised for consideration. The response of urban dwellers to illness or disability has often been linked to discomfort caused by pain or cosmetic attractiveness, while for rural dwellers the response to illness or disability is often related to the degree to which the illness or disability affects productivity. Often the rural resident will postpone seeking medical or associated services until it is economically or socially convenient. The notion of exposing their private lives to strangers or acquaintances from the local based services or to undertake the journey to distant services where the cultural or behavioural differences could be misunderstood, may impact on rural dwellers' well-being. Health service providers in rural areas need to understand such differences and difficulties when offering services.

MonographDOI
31 Oct 1997
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors outline the steps the World Bank and its partners must take to spur rural development, taking a broad rural focus, as opposed to a narrow agricultural sector focus, and involving the entire World Bank Group in promoting rural development.
Abstract: This rural sector strategy outlines the steps the Bank and its partners must take to spur rural development. Key elements of the strategy include (a) taking a broad rural focus, as opposed to a narrow agricultural sector focus, (b) involving the entire World Bank Group in promoting rural development, (c) working with partner countries and the broader international community to integrate rural development in overall country development strategies, and (d) addressing old issues in new ways. The five areas of concentration and future demand are rural strategy and policy formulation; agricultural systems intensification; management of natural resources and forestry; water allocation and management; and local and community development and rural infrastructure. The success of the rural sector strategy will be judged by three main outcomes: the reduction of rural poverty and improved management of natural resources; increased reliance on international markets for food security as well as profitable outlets for enhanced agricultural production; and a decreased number of rural underperformers and dropouts.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: A 10% random sample of China 1988 2/1000 Fertility and Birth Control Survey data was analyzed to determine to what extent Chinas transition to a market economy affects migration patterns in the country and to how the government policy of establishing rural enterprises reduced migration from rural areas as mentioned in this paper.
Abstract: A 10% random sample of China 1988 2/1000 Fertility and Birth Control Survey data was analyzed to determine to what extent Chinas transition to a market economy affects migration patterns in the country and to what extent the government policy of establishing rural enterprises reduced migration from rural areas. The survey was conducted by Chinas State Family Planning Commission in July-August 1988 and covered a nationally representative sample of individuals aged 15-64 years at the time of the survey. Data were collected on interprovincial migration trends for all members in the households surveyed. The study findings concerning individual-level characteristics of interprovincial migration during 1983-88 are consistent with previous research in China and in other developing countries. However unique to the findings for China is the effect of province-level characteristics. Individuals are more likely to move out of provinces with a large population and a lower level of economic development. This phenomenon is in line with classic arguments about migration and economic development. Foreign investment slightly reduces migration out of provinces receiving investment with migrants being more likely to choose provinces with high levels of foreign capital investment as destinations. Foreign investment leads to both direct job opportunities and secondary opportunities created by economic growth.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors present a historical perspective of rural tourism planning progress, focusing on the integration of tourism with community or regional development goals in rural areas of the United States.
Abstract: There is a need to develop planningframeworks that address tourism development within the broader context of community or regional development goals in rural areas of the United States. An integrative approach is one such framework that entails careful assessment of economic, social, and environmental impacts of tourism relative to other development strategies. This review takes a historical perspective of rural tourism planning progress. Core concepts of an integrative approach are collaborative planning with the affected stakeholders and the assessment of specific planning issues that foster integration of tourism with overall regional development. The application of more integrativeframeworks allows planners to improve the manner in which rural tourism development occurs.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: This paper used data from a 1988 survey of Chinese individuals to estimate rates of return to schooling in China, and found that the Mincer-type rate was 4.02 percent in rural areas and 3.29 percent in urban areas; these are fairly low estimates compared with similar estimates in other countries.
Abstract: This study uses data from a 1988 survey of Chinese individuals to estimate rates of return to schooling in China. The Mincer-type rate of return to schooling was estimated at 4.02 percent in the rural areas and 3.29 percent in the urban areas; these are fairly low estimates compared with similar estimates in other countries. The rate of return to schooling for females was significantly higher than that for males in urban areas. In addition, members of the Communist Party in urban areas had significantly lower returns to schooling compared with non-members.