Showing papers on "Rural electrification published in 2021"
TL;DR: In this paper, the levelized cost of energy (LCOE) of different mini-grids was compared and analyzed, and the results reveal that diesel is the most expensive technology.
Abstract: Rural communities in developing countries lack access to affordable, reliable, and sustainable forms of energy, which are essential factors for improving living conditions. These communities rely on diesel and kerosene, which are highly polluting compared to renewable energy technologies, to satisfy their energy needs. In this study, hybrid renewable energy systems (HRESs) have been analyzed, which are designed to overcome the fluctuating nature of renewables, for off-grid electrification. The results of this study—which covers many countries and examples—show that the successful integration of HRES is influenced by factors such as government support—and community organization — which is essential to keep these systems operating over the project lifetime. The levelized cost of energy (LCOE) of different mini-grids was compared and analyzed. The results reveal that by comparing the LCOE range of diesel (between USD 0.92/kWh and USD 1.30/kWh), solar photovoltaic (USD 0.40/kWh and USD 0.61/kWh), and hybrid solar photovoltaic/diesel (USD 0.54/kWh to USD 0.77/kWh), diesel is the most expensive technology. Additionally, the study addressed barriers that can hinder the implementation of mini-grids, such as lack of supportive policies and high capital cost. However, governments’ incentives are instrumental in lowering capital costs. These results are of particular importance for developing countries, where electricity supply via HRES is often quicker and cheaper than grid extension. The insights from this paper are a good starting point for in-depth research on optimal local design and ownership models, which can help accelerate the implementation, and lower the costs of sustainable electricity supply in remote areas.
105 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors developed a rural energy system design framework and analyzed the techno-economic feasibility of potential hybrid energy systems (HES) for rural electrification of a village in district Dera Ismail Khan, Pakistan.
86 citations
TL;DR: This study is an attempt to structure a model of electricity generation based on multiple combinations of HRES with the application of HOMER energy software at an identified off-grid village location in India to analyze the best-suited configuration of a hybrid RE system out of various combinations to meet the village load requirement reliably, continuously and sustainably.
Abstract: Electrification of villages is a vital step for improving the techno-economic conditions of rural areas and crucial for the country’s overall development. The villages’ welfare is one of the main aims of the rural electrification programs. Rural electrification is relatively costly compared to electrification of urban areas. Now, the research question is to find the best combinations of HRES from the available resources in a given village location that can meet the electricity demand in a sustainable manner and to see whether this is a cost-effective solution or not. This study is an attempt to structure a model of electricity generation based on multiple combinations of HRES with the application of HOMER energy software at an identified off-grid village location in India. The main objectives of this study are to analyze the best-suited configuration of a hybrid RE system out of various combinations to meet the village load requirement reliably, continuously and sustainably. The study also reduces the total system net present cost and least cost of energy (COE) using multi-objective HOMER Pro software. In this study, a resource assessment and demand calculation have been carried out and the COE per unit has been ascertained for different systems and configurations. A combination of PV–Wind–Biomass–Biogas–FC along with battery has been identified as the cheapest and most dependable solution with a COE of $0.214/kWh.
74 citations
TL;DR: An integrated decision-making approach for the optimal planning of a 100% renewable energy supply system comprising solar, wind, hydro, and biomass sources in a rural area located in Pakistan offers a valuable benchmark and guidelines for investors and stakeholders to create realistic investment plans for the energy industry.
65 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, the feasibility study of hybrid renewable systems for rural electrification and potable water supply, which can be used in each country with different values of economic inputs and local renewable potentials, is presented.
65 citations
TL;DR: In this article, the authors focused on determining the optimal configuration of PV-Wind-diesel hybrid energy production from available renewable resources (e.g., wind and solar) and diesel engines is considered as an economically viable and environmentally friendly alternative for electrification in these areas.
Abstract: The majority of rural communities in developing countries (such as Peru) are not connected to the electrical grid. Hybrid energy production from available renewable resources (e.g., wind and solar) and diesel engines is considered as an economically viable and environmentally friendly alternative for electrification in these areas. Motivated by the lack of a comprehensive investigation dedicated to the techno-economic analysis of hybrid systems (PV–wind–diesel) for off-grid electrification in Peru, the present work is focused on determining the optimal configuration of these systems for remote Peruvian villages. Three small communities without access to the grid (Campo serio, El potrero, and Silicucho), which are located in different climatic zones of Peru, have been accordingly selected as case studies. Seven different configurations including single component systems (solar, wind, and diesel) and hybrid ones are considered. While taking into account the meteorological data and load characteristics of the communities along with the diesel fuel’s price and the cost of components, HOMER software is utilized to determine the optimal sizing of the system [resulting in the lowest net present cost (NPC)] considering different scenarios. The obtained configurations are then compared considering other state-of-the-art economic indices [initial capital cost, total annual operating cost, and the cost of energy (COE)], the generation fractions, and the resulting CO2 emissions. The obtained results have revealed that, for all of the investigated communities, the hybrid solar–wind–diesel system is the most economically viable scenario. Considering the latter scenario, the obtained optimal configuration leads to an NPC of USD 227,335 (COE: 0.478 USD/kWh) for Campo serio, USD 183,851 (COE: 0.460 USD/kWh) for El potrero, and USD 146,583 (COE: 0.504 USD/kWh) for Silicucho. Furthermore, employing the optimal configurations a renewable fraction (with respect to the total generation) of 94% is obtained for Campo serio and Silicucho, while the achieved renewable fraction for El potrero is 97%. Moreover, for the case of Campo serio, the resulting CO2 emission of the obtained optimal system is determined to be 6.1% of that of a diesel-only unit, while the latter ratio is determined to be 2.7% for El potrero and 9.9% for that of Silicucho. The optimal configurations that are obtained and presented in the present paper can be utilized as guideline for designing electrification systems (with a minimized cost) for the considered communities and other villages with similar characteristics (population and climatic conditions).
62 citations
TL;DR: In this article, the authors examined the drivers and impacts of rural electrification with solar photovoltaic (PV) systems in Ethiopia from a cross-sectional study of 605 rural households and direct field examination of 137 solar PVs/lanterns.
44 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors investigate the extent and in what ways Indonesia has addressed energy justice issues and their social implications and suggest that for a broader energy justice vision to be realized, it will be necessary to design and implement energy policies that holistically address all elements of energy justice and facilitate the use of diverse forms of finance to address energy poverty.
Abstract: Many countries around the globe demonstrate a growing commitment to achieve universal electrification in alignment with Sustainable Development Goal 7. Indonesia is among the countries that have made a concerted effort to alleviate energy poverty, mindful that around 25 million of its citizens live without access to electricity. This article examines Indonesia’s efforts to realize its vision of energy justice by mobilizing private finance for renewable rural electrification. In particular, it investigates to what extent and in what ways Indonesia has addressed energy justice issues and their social implications. Interviews and document analysis reveal that Indonesia’s energy justice vision has manifested in policies and initiatives that focus narrowly on distributive energy justice in terms of energy accessibility and affordability. However, procedural and recognition aspects of energy justice remain unaddressed. Such a myopic interpretation of energy justice has resulted in policies that prioritize large scale and on-grid solutions and substantially reduce financial options for small and distributed renewable energy initiatives. It also perpetuates spatial inequality and reinforces the exclusion and disempowerment of energy poor communities from energy decisions. The findings suggest that for a broader energy justice vision to be realized, it will be necessary to design and implement energy policies that holistically address all elements of energy justice and facilitate the use of diverse forms of finance to address energy poverty.
41 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors investigated the impact of energy accessibility on income inequality for the period 1990-2017 using a two-stage generalized-method of moment (IV-GMM) approach.
41 citations
39 citations
Abstract: With the great successes in improving rural electrification and reducing poverty, China's small hydropower (SHP) development is expected to provide a good example for other developing countries. However, recently, nearly all new SHP development plans have been halted, and many plants have been urged to shut down or even be removed. The SHP industry in China is now in a dilemma. This paper presents a review of the status of SHP development in China and explores the challenges troubling this industry. It was revealed that SHP resources in many provinces have been intensively exploited, with an exploration rate over 0.80, while untapped resources are primarily located in remote western provinces, such as ecologically fragile Tibet. This intensive and disordered SHP development has caused serious dewatering of rivers and affected local agricultural and household water access, which arouses fierce controversy. Moreover, the role of SHP has been gradually weakened by the extension of power grids and diversified electricity sources. Therefore, the transition and upgrade of the SHP industry has become critical to enhance its sustainable development and to provide a solid example for the world. A divergence management strategy for SHP should be adopted to achieve low-impact development, as opposed to blind large-scale development or rigidly discontinuing all projects. Future transition strategies are proposed in this paper that include delicate management of existing plants and construction of new plants with higher standards, as well as pathways for the development benefits to be shared by a wider range of local residents.
TL;DR: In this article, the economic and environmental impacts of grid-extension and off-grid systems are reviewed to inform the appropriate electrification strategy for the current population without electricity access.
Abstract: This research reviews the economic and environmental impacts of grid-extension and off-grid systems, to inform the appropriate electrification strategy for the current population without electricity access. The principal technologies reviewed are centralised conventional fossil-fuel grid-extension and off-grid systems mainly based on solar PV and batteries. It finds that relatively few studies explicitly compare grid-extension electricity costs against off-grid systems costs and that there is a lack of consistency in the methodologies used to determine the least-cost solution. Nevertheless, the studies reviewed show a range of around $0.2–1.4/kWh for off-grid electricity access, compared to a range of below $0.1/kWh to more than $8/kWh for grid access, pointing to a number of cases in which off-grid access may already be the more cost-effective option. Existing literature on the environmental impacts primarily focuses on greenhouse gas emissions from electricity generation, with off-grid (solar PV and storage) systems’ emissions in the range of 50–130 gCO2-eq/kWh and grid generation from close to 0 gCO2-eq/kWh (for renewables and nuclear sources) to over 1,000 gCO2-eq/kWh (for coal). Emissions impacts stemming from transmission and distribution grids suggest a range of 0–30 gCO2-eq/kWh. Assessments of other environmental impacts such as water use, land use, biodiversity and e-waste are often absent in studies, whilst few studies explicitly compare the environmental impacts of grid versus off-grid systems. Further research should focus on comparing the costs of electricity access options using consistent metrics, expanding the scope of environmental impacts analysis, and integrating environmental and economic impacts into a comprehensive sustainability assessment of different options.
TL;DR: In this article, the authors reviewed the struggling rural off-grid initiative in South Africa to unpack effective, sustainable rural electrification approaches and proposed a new energy policy that mandates the supply of 50 kWh/month electricity through renewable energy source is required.
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors describe the present status of research and current operating installations, as well as the main challenges for future development of off-grid mini grids in West Africa, which pose as the missing link between solar home systems (SHS) and grid extension.
Abstract: The current electrification status in West African countries presents rural electrification rates below 40%, national grid losses above 39% with frequent disruptions, and electricity prices averaging $0.35/kWh, up to national values of $0.66/kWh. With this, off-grid systems have gained great attention during the last decade as energy solutions; especially solar home systems (SHS) and mini grids. Nowadays, 385 mini grids with a power of near 30 MW are operating in West Africa, with 95% based on PV. Since 2019, result-based tenders with international aid funding—more effective than previous competitive tenders—seek to install at least 317 new mini grids in Togo, 250 in Nigeria, 100 in Burkina Faso, and two in Mali. Besides, the market for mini-grid energy access start-ups grew from $19 million in 2013 to $339 million in 2018. Despite this recent development in West Africa, research and data for mini grids in this region is scarce, and it is mostly approached from the technological side, with a striking lack of information regarding the social impact. This work tries to describe the present status of research and current operating installations, as well as the main challenges for future development of off grid mini grids in West Africa, which pose as the missing link between SHS and grid extension.
TL;DR: In this paper, a survey was conducted in the rural areas of Hatiya, and the analysis revealed that households are mainly benefitting from (i) light at night (83%), and (ii) mobile phone charging (17%) from SHSs.
Abstract: The solar home system (SHS) is one of the proven technologies that is able to provide access to basic electricity to people where grid expansion is challenging. SHS technology was adopted in Bangladesh in 2003 through the Infrastructure Development Company Limited (IDCOL) and installed more than 4.13 million systems across the country, including remote islands like Hatiya. The benefits of SHS have been extensively studied in the literature, particularly focusing on the rural electrification process. This study sheds light on a different approach to this field: Is SHS still providing the proven benefits to its owners, or has it become a burden? To answer this question, a survey was conducted in the rural areas of Hatiya. The analysis revealed that households are mainly benefitting from (i) light at night (83%), and (ii) both light at night and mobile phone charging (17%) from SHSs. However, they are not completely satisfied with the systems due to a number of problems such as frequent light and controller replacement, use of kerosene lamps or candles at night in addition to SHS, and charging issues during monsoons. Thus, SHS is a burden to the owners unless the overall system's technical quality, including parts and accessories, is ensured. Related policy measures are recommended to turn this burden into a benefit again. These findings are also applicable to the remote islands of other least developed countries with similar socioeconomic characteristics to those of Bangladesh.
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors analyzed the technical and economic impact from household and productive use of electricity, respectively, using a mixture of high-resolution measurements and long-term data (years) on electricity expenditures and purchased electricity from a mini-grid in the Tanzanian highlands.
TL;DR: In this paper, a comparative analysis of the electrification experiences of these countries in terms of sources of funding, the challenges and opportunities they have been experiencing as well as an analysis of policy implications is provided.
TL;DR: In this article, the authors analyzed the feasibility of a hybrid renewable energy system (HRES) for the sustainable rural electrification of Lungi Town, Port Loko District, Sierra Leone.
Abstract: The provision of electricity in a reliable and sustainable manner in provincial towns and villages in the small West Africa state of Sierra Leone requires the adoption of appropriate technologies. The rapid increase in electricity demand has generated great interest in how to tackle a possible long-lasting energy deficiency in the country. This paper aims at analyzing the techno-economic feasibility of a hybrid renewable energy system (HRES) for the sustainable rural electrification of Lungi Town, Port Loko District, Sierra Leone. Optimization, economic, reliability, and sustainability analyses were carried out using a genetic algorithm (GA), with the main objectives of minimizing the loss of power supply probability (LPSP) and cost of energy (COE). Three different case scenarios were configured, using a diesel generator (DG), wind/PV/DG/battery, and wind/PV/battery. Various combinations of these case scenarios were compared to determine which option was the most economically viable. In order to determine the case scenario with the lowest LPSP and COE, the operations and maintenance costs of the three cases were calculated. Using only DG for case one, the operations and maintenance cost amounted to USD 1050,348.12/year. The operation and maintenance cost for case two, which included wind/PV/DG/battery, was found to be USD 561,674.06/year. The operations and maintenance cost for case three, which included wind/PV/battery, was found to be USD 36,000/year. In standalone microgrids, however, the use of renewable energy sources is not reliable due to the uncertainty of renewable energy sources. Consequently, the simulation results show that the wind/PV/DG/battery-based HRES is the most cost-effective, reliable, and sustainable for the specific location in comparison to the current traditional method of electricity generation. Since there is abundant solar radiation with substantial wind speeds across the country, this HRES can be applied in most rural and remote areas in place of the current diesel generators (DGs) that are widely deployed in the country.
TL;DR: In this article, the authors discuss about the rural energy requirement, overview of biogas production and fuel cells, potential and operational challenges for Biogas fed Solid Oxide fuel cell, technical barriers with Solid oxide fuel cell and issues related to rural electrification using renewable energy.
Abstract: In India, electricity use in rural areas accounts only 23% of national total usage. It is necessary to expand the access to electricity in Rural India for sustainable development. Biomass, a viable resource is the most direct and simple way at households and rural areas. Organic waste can be converted into an alternative source for cooking, heating and electricity. Biogas, a biofuel produced from organic waste (food scraps and animal waste) through Anaerobic Digestion. It is mainly composed of methane and carbon dioxide produced through Anaerobic Digestion in either large scale or small scale digesters. Traditionally, biogas has been used for cooking. Based on village level survey, electrical energy is the only commercial form of energy that has been used in villages. Biogas production paves the way to produce electricity at villages through high temperature fuel cell unit like Solid Oxide Fuel Cell; thus it is the best possible way to generate and utilize power close to where people live. The present paper discusses about the rural energy requirement, overview of biogas production and fuel cells, potential and operational challenges for biogas fed Solid oxide fuel cell, technical barriers with Solid oxide fuel cell and issues related to rural electrification using renewable energy. Also, a comparative analysis of SOFC with bio and thermo chemical conversion of biomass has been analyzed with a case study and reported.
TL;DR: Diesel generators have long been in use in rural communities in Nigeria despite the impact of emissions caused by these generators on the environment, due to the high cost and fluctuation in the di...
Abstract: Diesel generators have long been in use in rural communities in Nigeria despite the impact of emissions caused by these generators on the environment. Due to the high cost and fluctuation in the di...
TL;DR: This paper presents an open-source reinforcement framework for the modeling of an off-grid microgrid for rural electrification and proposes a novel model based reinforcement learning algorithm that is able to address both types of changes.
TL;DR: In this paper, the feasibility of a stand-alone hybrid renewable energy system (HRES) to satisfy the electric and hydrogen load for remote rural communities, where a case study of a village in West China is presented.
Abstract: Reliable and sustainable energy supply is essential for the development of remote rural areas, especially in the context of stringent carbon emission reduction target. This study aims to demonstrate the techno-economic feasibility of a stand-alone hybrid renewable energy system (HRES) to satisfy the electric and hydrogen load for remote rural communities, where a case study of a village in West China is presented. By performing simulation and optimization, the most cost-competitive system configuration is identified, the net present cost (NPC), cost of energy (COE) and cost of hydrogen (COH) of which are $1.26 M, $0.162/kWh and $12.5/kg, respectively. Compared with grid extension, the proposed system is more economical with a breakeven grid extension distance (BGED) of 16.15 km, and less carbon footprint with CO2 emission avoidance of around 375.44 ton/year. In addition, sensitivity analysis on annual average hydrogen load growth and system capacity shortfall friction have been performed. The results indicated that the implementation of a hybrid power system can be a reliable and economic viable solution for remote rural electrification and decarbonizing local transport sector, whilst social and environmental benefits are also achieved.
TL;DR: In this article, the authors used U.S. Census data and an identification strategy based on hydroelectric potential to identify the effects of the geographic expansion of higher-voltage electricity lines.
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors conducted a systematic review of these projects to derive qualitative insights on drivers of project success and the benefits to communities, and empirically validated some of their qualitative findings and identified the factors contributing to mini-grid project success.
Abstract: Almost 900 million people are living with no access to electricity, mostly in remote regions where extending the central grid is infeasible. These remote communities often heavily depend on expensive and polluting diesel generators that create significant financial and operational challenges. Following the recent advances and cost reductions in renewable technologies, governments, private sector, and non-profit organizations started investing in rural electrification projects through renewable mini-grids, some of which were reported to have been unsuccessful. The findings and the lessons learned from these projects remain highly compartmentalized across different studies, making it significantly challenging to derive evidence-based insights on clean rural electrification for investors and practitioners. This study aids in closing this gap by collecting project-level data on 104 renewable energy mini-grids installed across the globe. We first conduct a systematic review of these projects to derive qualitative insights on drivers of project success and the benefits to communities. Next, we empirically validate some of our qualitative findings and identify the factors contributing to mini-grid project success and cost.
TL;DR: In this article, the authors conducted a SWOT analysis for concentrated solar power (CSP) and photovoltaic (PV) systems in Rwanda and concluded that the off-grid PV microgrid system for the rural community is the most cost-effective because of its low net present cost (NPC).
Abstract: The energy sector of today’s Rwanda has made a remarkable growth to some extent in recent years. Although Rwanda has natural energy resources (e.g., hydro, solar, and methane gas, etc.), the country currently has an installed electricity generation capacity of only 226.7 MW from its 45 power plants for a population of about 13 million in 2021. The current national rate of electrification in Rwanda is estimated to 54.5% (i.e.; 39.7% grid-connected and 14.8% off-grid connected systems). This clearly demonstrates that having access to electricity is still a challenge to numerous people not to mention some blackout-related problems. With the ambition of having electricity for all, concentrated solar power (CSP) and photovoltaic (PV) systems are regarded as solutions to the lack of electricity. The production of CSP has still not been seriously considered in Rwanda, even though the technology has attracted significant global attention. Heavy usage of conventional power has led to the depletion of fossil fuels. At the same time, it has highlighted its unfriendly relationship with the environment because of carbon dioxide (CO2) emission, which is a major cause of global warming. Solar power is another source of electricity that has the potential to generate electricity in Rwanda. Firstly, this paper summarizes the present status of CSP and PV systems in Rwanda. Secondly, we conducted a technoeconomic analysis for CSP and PV systems by considering their strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats (SWOT). The input data of the SWOT analysis were obtained from relevant shareholders from the government, power producers, minigrid, off-grid, and private companies in Rwanda. Lastly, the technical and economical feasibilities of CSP and PV microgrid systems in off-grid areas of Rwanda were conducted using the system advisor model (SAM). The simulation results indicate that the off-grid PV microgrid system for the rural community is the most cost-effective because of its low net present cost (NPC). According to the past literature, the outcomes of this paper through the SWOT analyses and the results obtained from the SAM model, both the CSP and PV systems could undoubtedly play a vital role in Rwanda’s rural electrification. In fact, PV systems are strongly recommended in Rwanda because they are rapid and cost-effective ways to provide utility-scale electricity for off-grid modern energy services to the millions of people who lack electricity access.
TL;DR: In this article, a community survey with 1.016 participants and 54 semi-structured interviews with government institutions and energy businesses in Uganda and Zambia was conducted to assess the barriers to needs-centric community engagement.
Abstract: It is widely accepted that community engagement is vital for achieving sustainable development outcomes. While governments in several low-income countries have introduced community engagement for their electrification initiatives, the adequacy of traditional top-down approaches to capture community needs has been contested. In this paper, we holistically assess the barriers to needs-centric community engagement. Based on a community survey with 1.016 participants and 54 semi-structured interviews with government institutions and energy businesses in Uganda and Zambia, we unpack the relationships between communities and the public sector, and between communities and energy companies to interrogate the realities of community engagement in rural electrification. We find considerable gaps between community preferences for needs-centric engagement and how public and private sectors are currently engaging. Key institutional barriers for needs-centric community engagement are vertical and horizontal disconnections within the public sector as well as challenging and ineffective sharing of crucial information. For energy companies the main obstacle is the limited value attributed to a deep understanding of community needs. Based on our results, we develop an integrated model for community engagement focused on capturing energy needs. The model combines top-down and bottom-up engagement approaches where public institutions play a catalytic role in setting a flexible enabling environment for energy companies to establish deep connections with local communities, and where communities are given a platform to define and communicate immediate and long-term needs through context-specific means.
TL;DR: In this paper, a theory-embedded framework of institutional economics is applied to the use of solar home systems for electrification in Tanzania and examines the realizations of the electricity provided.
Abstract: Off-grid renewable energy sources are dramatically altering the energy landscape in countries with low energy access. While techno-economic perspectives are already widely discussed, the political economy is largely ignored, particularly regarding the institutions providing electricity. Two of many ways that the task of electrification can be framed are: (1) as the duty of the government to provide a basic service to its people, or (2) as a goods that can be purchased from private players in a market system. Electrification in our country of focus, Tanzania, has developed a promising off-grid market as an increasing number of private players have recently become active there. While grid extension is still a priority for the government, solar home systems, which are estimated to make up more than half of all new connections by 2030, get surprisingly less attention in terms of coordination, political support, and policy frameworks. This is despite the fact that the population is highly dispersed, making grid extension less suitable and more expensive than off-grid, decentralized systems. After an extensive literature review, our method applies a theory-embedded framework of institutional economics to the use of solar home systems for electrification in Tanzania and examines the realizations of the electricity provided. The framework defines key political economy criteria as drivers for energy access and evaluates their respective relevance. We then apply this framework to evaluate 20 selected projects, which have promoted solar home systems in rural off-grid areas in Tanzania since 2000. As a unique contribution to the literature, this research highlights the underappreciated influence of different institutional arrangements on the political economy landscape and on the electricity provided for rural electrification in sub-Saharan Africa.
TL;DR: In this article, the authors investigated the potential role of renewable energy-based rural electrification to reduce poverty in remote non-grid villages and outermost islands, through the use of the renewable energy based village-grids (RVGs) program in Indonesia.
TL;DR: In this paper, a simple multi-sector spatial model and evidence from a panel of rural Ethiopian villages during its recent expansion of electricity supply was used to find that electrification raised irrigation rates, agricultural yields and non-agricultural business activity.
TL;DR: In this article, the authors defined microgrids as distribution networks with distributed energy resources (DERs) operating in a controlled and coordinated way, and the ability to operate connected to the main power network or islanded.
Abstract: Microgrids have gained significant interest over the last 20 years and are perceived as key components of future power systems. Microgrids are defined as distribution networks with distributed energy resources (DERs) (e.g., distributed generators, storage devices, and controllable loads) operating in a controlled and coordinated way. Moreover, microgrids should have clear electrical boundaries and the ability to operate connected to the main power network or islanded. The coordinated control of microgrid resources increases energy efficiency, minimizes the overall energy consumption, and reduces the environmental impacts of energy production. At the same time, the ability of microgrids to seamlessly transition to islanded operation when upstream network faults occur increases the reliability and resilience of the customer supply. Furthermore, microgrids have been adopted as prominent and viable solutions for rural electrification in developing countries, isolated areas, or areas with weak power transmission infrastructures.