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Secondary electrons
About: Secondary electrons is a research topic. Over the lifetime, 6703 publications have been published within this topic receiving 111977 citations.
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TL;DR: It is shown that reactions of such electrons, even at energies well below ionization thresholds, induce substantial yields of single- and double-strand breaks in DNA, which are caused by rapid decays of transient molecular resonances localized on the DNA's basic components.
Abstract: Most of the energy deposited in cells by ionizing radiation is channeled into the production of abundant free secondary electrons with ballistic energies between 1 and 20 electron volts. Here it is shown that reactions of such electrons, even at energies well below ionization thresholds, induce substantial yields of single- and double-strand breaks in DNA, which are caused by rapid decays of transient molecular resonances localized on the DNA's basic components. This finding presents a fundamental challenge to the traditional notion that genotoxic damage by secondary electrons can only occur at energies above the onset of ionization, or upon solvation when they become a slowly reacting chemical species.
1,891 citations
1,100 citations
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TL;DR: Proton beam (p-beam) writing as discussed by the authors is a direct writing process that uses a focused beam of MeV protons to pattern resist material at nanodimensions, which is similar in many ways to direct writing using electrons.
1,074 citations
TL;DR: In this article, the secondary electron emission of surfaces bombarded by primary electrons with respect to scanning electron microscopy is surveyed and different detectors for secondary electrons in the scanning electron microscope, material, topography, voltage, magnetic, and crystallographic orientation contrast, as well as the lateral resolution, depending among other things on the spatial distribution of the emitted secondary electrons, are discussed.
Abstract: This paper surveys experimental results concerned with secondary electron emission of surfaces bombarded by primary electrons with respect to scanning electron microscopy. The energy distribution, the angular distribution, and the yield of secondary electrons from metals and insulators are reviewed as well as the escape depth of the secondary electrons and the contribution of the backscattered electrons to the secondary electron yield. The different detectors for secondary electrons in the scanning electron microscope are described. The contrast mechanisms in the scanning electron microscope, material, topography, voltage, magnetic, and crystallographic orientation contrast based on secondary electron emission, as well as the lateral resolution, depending among other things on the spatial distribution of the emitted secondary electrons, are discussed.
858 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, the dependence of the yield on the energy just above a threshold is derived and the derivation is not rigorous because it circumvents some of the difficulties of the three-body problem by applying ergodicity, albeit in a weakened form.
Abstract: When an electron hits an atom or ion, it may knock off an electron This process is fundamental in almost all types of gas discharge The reaction is endothermic; hence there is a threshold value in the electron energy below which it does not occur In this paper, the dependence of the yield on the energy just above this threshold is derived The derivation is not rigorous because it circumvents some of the difficulties of the three-body problem by applying ergodicity, albeit in a weakened form The result is that, for atoms, the yield rises as the 1127th power of the energy excess For ions the exponent lies between this number and unity
835 citations