Showing papers on "Situation awareness published in 1992"

Theory and Design of Adaptive Automation in Aviation Systems

Abstract: : Recent technological advances have made viable the implementation of intelligent automation in advanced tactical aircraft. The use of this technology has given rise to new human factors issues and concerns. Errors in highly automated aircraft have been linked to the adverse effects of automation on the pilot's system awareness, monitoring workload, and ability to revert to manual control. However adaptive automation, or automation that is implemented dynamically in response to changing task demands on the pilot, has been proposed to be superior to systems with fixed, or static automation. This report examines several issues concerning the theory and design of adaptive automation in aviation systems, particularly as applied to advanced tactical aircraft. An analysis of the relative costs and benefits of conventional (static) aviation automation provides the starting point for the development of a theory of adaptive automation. This analysis includes a review of the empirical studies investigating effects of automation on pilot performance. The main concepts of adaptive automation are then introduced, and four major methods for implementing adaptive automation in the advanced cockpit are described and discussed. Aircraft Automation, Pilot Situational Awareness, Aviation Human Factors, Pilot Workload.

A principled approach to the measurement of situation awareness in commercial aviation

Abstract: The issue of how to support situation awareness among crews of modern commercial aircraft is becoming especially important with the introduction of automation in the form of sophisticated flight management computers and expert systems designed to assist the crew. In this paper, cognitive theories are discussed that have relevance for the definition and measurement of situation awareness. These theories suggest that comprehension of the flow of events is an active process that is limited by the modularity of attention and memory constraints, but can be enhanced by expert knowledge and strategies. Three implications of this perspective for assessing and improving situation awareness are considered: (1) Scenario variations are proposed that tax awareness by placing demands on attention; (2) Experimental tasks and probes are described for assessing the cognitive processes that underlie situation awareness; and (3) The use of computer-based human performance models to augment the measures of situation awareness derived from performance data is explored. Finally, two potential example applications of the proposed assessment techniques are described, one concerning spatial awareness using wide field of view displays and the other emphasizing fault management in aircraft systems.

Analysis of Operational Errors and Workload in Air Traffic Control

Abstract: The Federal Aviation Administration has embarked on a major curriculum redesign effort to improve the training of en route air traffic controllers. Included in this effort was a cognitive task analysis. One component of the task analysis was an analysis of operational errors, to obtain insights into cognitive-perceptual factors contributing to controller decisionmaking error. The data suggest that a failure to maintain situation awareness is the primary cause of controller error. These results highlight the importance of the controller task “maintain situation awareness”, and are consistent with the findings of the other analyses. An approach for training situation awareness skills is presented in relation to models of expertise developed from other analyses: an expert mental model of air traffic control, and a task decomposition listing thirteen primary controller tasks. The findings and training paridigm have implications for training other complex high-performance tasks performed in a real-time, multi-...

A Virtual Environment System for Mission Planning

Abstract: A key function of a mission planning system is to enhance and maintain situational awareness of planning personnel and aircrews who will use the system for pre-mission rehearsals and briefings. We have developed a mission planner using virtual envirnoment technology. We provide a

Theories of Expertise as Models for Understanding Situation Awareness

Abstract: : Situation awareness is often understood as a skill unique to piloting aircraft and controlling other real 6me processes. Research intended to better understand or to measure situation awareness, however, has proven to be difficult. An alternative approach to investigating situation awareness is proposed using theories of expertise as models. These theories provide a mechanism which explain why pilots will maintain or fail to maintain situation awareness. Further, models based on theories of expertise provide testable hypotheses regarding quantifiable aspects of situation awareness and suggest training interventions to improve situation awareness. Situation awareness is a term used by pilots and other operators of real-time process to describe the operator's, knowledge about his surroundings in light of his mission's goals, (Whitaker and Klein, 1988, p. 321). The concept is most often used to explain performance failures. A pilot who for no discernable reason does not respond to a threat such as an enemy aircraft or the ground, is said to have failed to maintain situation awareness. Cognitive psychologists have rapidly embraced the concept of situation awareness even though a workable definition is elusive (Fracker, 1988; Sarter and Woods, 1991).

Neural Network Models of Air Combat Maneuvering

Abstract: : The primary goal of this project was to explore the applicability of artificial neural network (NN) models in the domain of air combat maneuvering (ACM). The work investigated several models: (a) NN models that select ACM on the basis of training with the production rules of a model, Air Combat Expert Simulation (ACES); (b) NN models that mimic the action selections of the Automated Maneuvering Logic (AML) System; (c) NN models that predict the outcome of engagements flown in the Simulator for Air-to-Air Combat (SAAC) given summary measures of various parameters measured during the engagements; and (d) NN models that predict future aircraft control inputs in SAAC engagements given the values of flight parameters at particular points in time. These various models incorporate knowledge about air combat maneuvers and components of maneuvers as well as rudimentary knowledge about maneuver planning and situational awareness. For most of the models, validation tests were conducted using data different from that used in training the models. The authors provide details on each of these efforts as well as a review of the ACES model, a presentation of the basics of NNs, and an overview of a software system developed for the implementation and testing of the NN models. Air combat, Flight simulation, Performance measurement, Air combat maneuvering, Flight simulators, Flight training, Neural networks.

Situation Awareness: Modelling, Measurement, and Impacts

Abstract: The issue of how to support, model, and measure situation awareness (SA) among pilots and crew members of modern military and commercial aircraft is becoming more important with the introduction of sophisticated control and display technologies, automation, and decision aids to cockpits and crew stations. As a result of Desert Storm, the military, especially the Air Force, has renewed its interest in SA and hopes to determine its impact on aircrew combat effectiveness. The Air Force's operational community has adopted the following definition of SA:

Helmet-mounted systems technology planning for the future

Abstract: Pilot workload is rapidly approaching unmanageable proportions. Programs involving sensor fusion and technologies such as Head-up-Displays and Multi-function Displays are being pursued to help the pilot reduce workload and increase their situational awareness. The Helmet-Mounted Systems Technology program office is developing an integrated Helmet-mounted Display system which will dramatically increase the pilot's situational awareness under all operational conditions and improve weapon system mission effectiveness. In order to aecomplish this, the program must take into account requirements, current state-of-the-art and projected availability of technologies. The HMST program office uses a System Engineering approach to tie together the key technologies and interfaces which are required in the development of helmet-mounted displays. Several of the key technologies discussed in this paper include 3-D audio, a high voltage quick disconnect connector, displays and standardized symbology.

Design for Tactical Situation Awareness Display

Abstract: : Because of continuing advances in on-board sensors, computers, and displays, we can expect to see significant growth in the amount of information presented to rotorcraft crews by next-generation tactical situation displays. If unchecked, this growth will easily exceed the crew's capability for dealing with the available on-board information base in a timely and effective fashion. A range of technologies are now being proposed to provide appropriate levels of information management and situation awareness, ranging from hardware upgrades like touch screen displays, to advanced computing horsepower to support multi- sensor data fusion, to new AI technologies including export systems like Pilot's Associate. The problem, however, is not that there is a dearth of candidate technologies; rather it is that we have no reliable means for evaluating them in terms of the fundamental situation awareness they afford the crew. What is called for is an objective metric for evaluating the awareness level provided a crew by a new cockpit technology, and a rational means for using this metric in a structured methodology involving: (1) identification of mission-specific tactical informational requirements; (2) generation of candidate display formats and symbologies; and (3) metric-based evaluation of afforded situation awareness.

Operator assistant to support deep space network link monitor and control

Abstract: Preparing the Deep Space Network (DSN) stations to support spacecraft missions (referred to as pre-cal, for pre-calibration) is currently an operator and time intensive activity. Operators are responsible for sending and monitoring several hundred operator directivities, messages, and warnings. Operator directives are used to configure and calibrate the various subsystems (antenna, receiver, etc.) necessary to establish a spacecraft link. Messages and warnings are issued by the subsystems upon completion of an operation, changes of status, or an anomalous condition. Some points of pre-cal are logically parallel. Significant time savings could be realized if the existing Link Monitor and Control system (LMC) could support the operator in exploiting the parallelism inherent in pre-cal activities. Currently, operators may work on the individual subsystems in parallel, however, the burden of monitoring these parallel operations resides solely with the operator. Messages, warnings, and directives are all presented as they are received; without being correlated to the event that triggered them. Pre-cal is essentially an overhead activity. During pre-cal, no mission is supported, and no other activity can be performed using the equipment in the link. Therefore, it is highly desirable to reduce pre-cal time as much as possible. One approach to do this, as well as to increase efficiency and reduce errors, is the LMC Operator Assistant (OA). The LMC OA prototype demonstrates an architecture which can be used in concert with the existing LMC to exploit parallelism in pre-cal operations while providing the operators with a true monitoring capability, situational awareness and positive control. This paper presents an overview of the LMC OA architecture and the results from initial prototyping and test activities.

Controls and displays for Douglas Aircraft for the 1990s

Abstract: The rapid changes occurring in the design of aircraft cockpits are presented The development of cockpit and avionics integration at Douglas Aircraft and a Honeywell Air Transport Systems Division featured in the MD-11 is summarized The authors then predict further improvements in the next decade, breaking down this technology into controls, sensors, displays, and formats Examples of each are presented Future research in this area is expected to enhance autonomous operations, optimize automation of crew workload, enable onboard mission replanning, and, in general, increase the pilot's situational awareness >

JTIDS relative navigation and data registration

Abstract: The Joint Tactical Information Distribution System (JTIDS), an integrated communication, navigation, and identification system, provides a solution to the critical data registration problem facing the joint US military services today, namely, the establishment, in real-time, of accurately correlated positions and tracks for all friendly, unknown, and hostile targets in an operational area, thus providing the total situation awareness required for tactical and C/sup 2/ operations. The fundamental relationships of JTIDS navigation and the error analysis for target registration and target hand-off in both geodetic and relative grid coordinates are presented. Simulation results are provided for two scenarios to demonstrate the level of improvement that JTIDS navigation can have on situation awareness, target acquisition, and weapon delivery. Specifically, it is shown that accurate data registration can be achieved by as few as two JTIDS members, with or without accurate knowledge of geodetic position. >

Battalion Level Tactical Decision Making: Can Automation Make a Difference?

Abstract: : This monograph analyzes battalion-level tactical decision making to determine if an automated system can facilitate decision making during combat. Danger, exertion, uncertainty, and chance are battlefield conditions under which the Commander must operate. While technology has increased battlefield speed and lethality, improvements in command, control, and decision making have not kept pace. The study first reviews command and control and decision making from theoretical and historical perspectives and then from the perspective of current and emerging doctrine to identify the requirements for decision making. It then analyzes tactical decision making tasks and conditions to identify the criteria an effective system should meet. The study applies these criteria to manual and automated systems to identify their relative advantages and disadvantages to determine if automation can facilitate decision making and, if it can, what the proper mix of automated and manual systems should be. The author concludes that automation can facilitate battalion-level tactical decision making. To support the battalion Commander's requirements during battle, his command and control system should be based on a manual system to support the intuitive, leadership, and human elements of command and control. Automated systems should support the Commander's decision making capability and battlefield control by improving his situational awareness.

Situation awareness in command and control settings

Abstract: Many military and civilian operational settings are described as command and control (C2) environments characterized by high information load, extensive team coordination, and communication demands. To address these problems, designers have turned to the application of automation and decision aids. Currently, there are few techniques for assessing the performance of C2 operators with which to guide applications. A need exists for constructs on which to evaluate C2 systems. One possible concept for addressing these issues is that of Situation Awareness (SA). The SA concept and methodologies have developed largely around the cockpit environment. The extension is discussed of the SA concept to a team context related to C2 environments. Then the implications of such an approach for developing a methodology to empirically measure team SA in a C2 environment which should allow for the assessment of SA of both individual operators and overall SA of operational teams. The discussion also focuses on how a knowledge of SA may impact the design and development of systems which optimize rather than maximize information access and processing and, subsequently, improve C2 decision making.

Collision Prediction and Avoidance Using Enhanced GPS

Abstract: The increased concerns over airport safety, airline operating costs and airport capacity have prompted investigations into new technologies. Cost effective improvements in current airport procedures and systems are needed to satisfy future terminal area needs. The wide spread use of Differential Global Navigation Satellite Systems (DGNSS) will provide new, cost effective solutions for airport control and management. This paper discusses relevant research conducted by the authors involving enhanced Global Positioning System (GPS) capabilities in the airport environment. The use of Enhanced GPS was utilized in a number of surface and flight tests conducted at the Manchester, New Hampshire Airport. The enhanced GPS navigator developed by DSDC utilized Magnavox GPS receiver technology and DSDC developed processing algorithms and software. Common mathematical relationships developed for collision detection and avoidance were designed to satisfy both aircraft, vehicular and air traffic control needs. Through the use of DSDC’s anticipatory software, differential GPS positions were used to predict projected positions for all equipped aircraft/vehicles with respect to their current velocity and heading. With this information, potential collisions between moving vehicles and between moving vehicles and stationary objects can be automatically detected and reported. Stationary objects may be non-moving vehicles which are transmitting GPS position reports or may be permanent/semi-permanent obstacles which are part of the geographical area of concern. Geographic zones may be defined around obstacles which may pose a hazard to navigation, such as transmission towers, tall buildings, and terrain features. Zones may also be keyed to the airport’s NOTAUS, identifying areas of the airport which have restricted usage. Zone definition and processing is compatible with global ECEF navigation and coordinate frames. Precise GPS-based position, velocity and time is used to support mathematical algorithms compatible with all airport movement operations. The developed algorithms, when supported with Automatic Dependent Surveillance (ADS) and a 3 dimensional airport database, can also provide the controller and pilot with a true 3-D situational awareness capability.

Hazard alerting and situational awareness in advanced air transport cockpits

Abstract: An overview of the Advanced Cockpit Simulation Facility at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology is presented. Though detailed results depend on the specific application, graphical presentation of flight control and alert information has generally been found to be effective for situational awareness and subjectively selected by flight crews. Graphical display is most effective when it is consistent with the pilots cognitive map of the process being displayed or of the situation.

Identification and experimental validation of the impact of "party line" information on situational awareness in air carrier operations/

Abstract: Air/ground digital datalink communications are an integral component of the FAA's Air Traffic Control (ATC) modernization strategy. With the introduction of datalink into the ATC system, there is concern over the potential loss of situational awareness by flight crews due to the reduction in the "party line" information available to the pilot. "Party line" information is gleaned by flight crews overhearing communications between ATC and other aircraft. In the datalink environment, party line information may not be available due to the use of discrete addressing. Information concerning the importance, availability, and accuracy of party line elements was explored through an opinion survey of active air carrier flight crews. The survey identified numerous important party line elements. These elements were scripted into a full-mission flight simulation. The flight simulation experiment examined the utilization of party line information by studying subject responses to the specific information elements. Some party line elements perceived as important were effectively utilized by flight crews in the simulated operational environment. However, other party line elements stimulated little or no increase in situational awareness. The ability to assimilate and use party line information appeared to be dependent on workload, time availability, and the tactical/strategic nature of the situations. In addition, the results of both the survey and the simulation indicated that the importance of party line information appeared to be greatest for operations near or on the airport. This indicates that caution must be exercised when implementing datalink communications in these high workload, tactical sectors. Thesis Supervisor: Dr. R. John Hansman, Jr. Associate Professor of Aeronautics and Astronautics

Cockpit Crises and Decision Making: Impucations for Pilot Training

Abstract: This paper presents the theoretical foundations and a description of a research study designed to examine pilots' attitudes about cockpit crises and the processes used to make decisions in crises. The findings suggest that a "high crisis perception/low urgency flow rigidity" pattern may be an optimal approach to crisis decision making. In other words, the decision maker recognizes the situation as a crisis and is motivated to act, but the low sense of urgency encourages flexibility with respect to roles, responsibility, participation, and procedures. Suggestions for both ground training and simulator instruction are offered which expand situational awareness to include the concepts of crisis and available decision time.