Showing papers on "Situation awareness published in 2000"

Theoretical Underpinnings of Situation Awareness, A Critical Review

Abstract: The enhancement of operator situation awareness (SA) has become a major designgoal for those developing operator interfaces, automation concepts and training programs ina wide variety of fields, including aircraft, air traffic control, power plants, and advancedmanufacturing systems. This dramatic growth in interest in SA, beginning in the mid-1980’s and accelerating through the 1990’s, was spurred on by many factors, chief amongthem the challenges of a new class of technology. One can easily see that situation awareness has always been needed in order forpeople to perform tasks effectively. Prehistoric man undoubtedly needed to be aware ofmany cues in his environment in order to successfully hunt and keep from being hunted.For many years, having good situation awareness was largely a matter of training andexperience — learning the important cues to watch for and what they meant. With the advent of the machine age, our emphasis shifted to creating a new class oftools to help people perform tasks, largely those physical in nature. The computer age andnow the information age have followed rapidly on the heals of basic mechanization. Thetools provided are no longer simple; they are amazingly complex, focused on not justphysical tasks, but elaborate perceptual and cognitive tasks as well. The pilot of today’saircraft, the air traffic controller, the power plant operator, the anesthesiologist: all mustperceive and comprehend a dazzling array of data which is often changing very rapidly. Ihave taken to calling this challenge the information gap (Figure 1).Today’s systems are capable of producing a huge amount of data, both on the statusof their own components, and on the status of the external environment. Due toachievements in various types of datalink and internet technologies, systems can alsoprovide data on almost anything anywhere in the world. The problem with today’s systemsis not a lack of information, but finding what is needed when it is needed.Unfortunately, in the face of this torrent of data, many operators may be even lessinformed than ever before. This is because there is a huge gap between the tons of databeing produced and disseminated and people’s ability to find the bits that are needed andprocess them together with the other bits to arrive at the actual information that is requiredfor their decisions. This information must be integrated and interpreted correctly as well; afrequently tricky task. This problem is real and ongoing, whether the job is in the cockpitor behind a desk. It is becoming widely recognized that more data does not equal moreinformation. Issues of automation and “intelligent systems” have frequently onlyexacerbated the problem, rather than aided it (Endsley & Kiris, 1995; Sarter & Woods,1995).The criteria for what we are seeking from system designs have correspondinglychanged. In addition to designing systems that provide the operator with the neededinformation and capabilities, we must also insure that it is provided in a way that is useablecognitively as well as physically. We want to know how well the system design supportsthe operator’s ability to get the needed information under dynamic operational constraints.(i.e. How well does it bridge the information gap?) This design objective and measure ofmerit has been termed situation awareness.

Information behavior in dynamic group work contexts: interwoven situational awareness, dense social networks and contested collaboration in command and control

Abstract: In many dynamic work situations, no single individual can acquire the varied and often rapidly expanding information needed for success Individuals must work together to collect, analyze, synthesize and disseminate information throughout the work process Perhaps one of the most dynamic work contexts is command and control in the military at the battalion level which directs 300 to 1000 soldiers on the battlefield This paper reports on a study that explores human information behavior in command and control (C2) Data was gathered from simulated battle exercises, interviews with experienced C2 personnel and documentation on C2 During data analysis, three important themes that highlight the why, what, how and consequences of information behavior in C2 emerged The first is the concept of interwoven situational awareness consisting of individual, intragroup and intergroup shared understanding of the situation Interwoven situational awareness appears to facilitate response to dynamic, constraint-bound situations The second theme describes the need for dense social networks or frequent communication between participants about the work context and situation, the work process and domain-specific information The third theme is called ‘contested collaboration’, a phenomenon where team members maintain an outward stance of cooperation but work to further their own interests, at times sabotaging the collaborative effort These results provide insights to the complex nature of human information behavior in dynamic and complex work contexts and lead to recommendations for training and further research

Design of Automation for Telerobots and the Effect on Performance, Operator Situation Awareness, and Subjective Workload

Abstract: In this article we review and assess human-centered level of automation (LOA), an alternate approach to traditional, technology-centered design of automation in dynamic-control systems. The objective of human-controlled LOA is to improve human-machine performance by taking into account both operator and technological capabilities. Automation literature has shown that traditional automation can lead to problems in operator situation awareness (SA) due to the out-of-the (control) loop performance problem, which may lead to a negative impact on overall systems performance. Herein we address a standing paucity of research into LOA to deal with these problems. Various schemes of generic control system function allocations were developed to establish a LOA taxonomy. The functions allocated to a human operator, a computer, or both, included monitoring system variables, generating process plans, selecting an “optimal” plan and implementing the plan. Five different function allocation schemes, or LOAs, were empirically investigated as to their usefulness for enhancing telerobot system performance and operator SA, as well as reducing workload. Human participants participated in experimental trials involving a high fidelity, interactive simulation of a telerobot performing nuclear materials handling at the various LOAs. Automation failures were attributed to various simulated system deficiencies necessitating operator detection and correction to return to functioning at an automated mode. Operator performance at each LOA, and during the failure periods, was evaluated. Operator SA was measured using the Situation Awareness Global Assessment Technique, and perceived workload was measured using the NASA-Task Load Index. Results demonstrated improvements in human-machine system performance at higher LOAs (levels involving greater computer control of system functions) along with lower operator subjective workload. However, under the same conditions, operator SA was reduced for certain types of system problems and reaction time to, and performance during, automation failures was substantially lower. Performance during automation failure was best when participants had been functioning at lower, intermediate LOAs (levels involving greater human control of system functions). © 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Team situation assessment and information distribution.

Abstract: Described is the cooperative work of constructing team situation awareness within two teams of a military command and control unit. Specifically discussed is how the distributed cognitive and cooperative work of decision-making of the two teams is structured. The situation enabled two different ways of distributing information within the team: one serial and one parallel. One team chose the parallel information transfer, the other the serial one. Discussed is the interaction patterns that emerge in the respective teams and their consequences for situation assessment and situation awareness. The differences are then discussed in terms of means of sharing information. Some hypotheses for future research are also offered.

Defining and Measuring Shared Situational Awareness

Abstract: : The Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) is interested in exploring key factors that affect how teams, particularly distributed teams, develop what is called shared situational awareness in an operational environment. The DARPA Program Manager for the Wargaming the Asymmetric Environment program asked CNA to address these issues, with subcontracting support from ThoughtLink Incorporated. The focus of the project was to demonstrate how wargaming could be used as a testbed for conducting experiments to explore these key factors in shared situational awareness. The concept of "shared situational awareness" which under lies some recent ideas about the organization of military staffs, is elusive and ill-defined, and does not lend itself easily to traditional scientific evaluation. Nevertheless, this paper composes a systematic definition and develops objective approaches to studying the process by which "shared situational awareness" (SSA) arises.

Bundles in the Wild: Managing Information to Solve Problems and Maintain Situation Awareness

Abstract: This article describes how experts create and use bundles-organized, highly selective collections of information- to help solve problems and maintain situation awareness. In field observations of expert clinicians caring for patients in critical care units, bundles appear to be a widely used means of managing information to support diverse, complex, and often simultaneous tasks. They may be especially useful in settings that are characterized by high uncertainty, low predictability, frequent interruptions, and potentially grave outcomes; where time and attention are highly constrained; and where interdisciplinary teamwork is essential. Reports of analogous observations from other domains such as aviation and air traffic control suggest that bundles may be a common information management tool for solving problems and maintaining situation awareness. In an age of digital libraries, computer-based tools for creating and managing bundles may be useful as the information in these settings is increasingly represented in digital collections that are larger, more complex, more diverse, and potentially more difficult to explore and manipulate.

Pilot Situation Awareness Training in General Aviation

Abstract: While the majority of research on the topic of situation awareness has been focused on designing better systems, significant interest also exists in finding ways to improve SA through training. This paper describes an ongoing program that is directed at developing programs for training SA in general aviation pilots. Factors that have been found to pose problems for SA in pilots are reviewed and directions are established for creating programs for improving SA through training.

Automation of task processes: An example of intelligent transportation systems

Abstract: The sophistication of advanced automated technologies offer unprecedented opportunities to improve system and operator safety, efficiency, and comfort. However, these applications fundamentally alter the task process by virtue of the degree of automatic control these systems may exert over levels of the task (i.e., control, tactical, strategic). This article presents a discussion of the possible deleterious effects of automated technology in the transport context in relation to Intelligent Transport Systems (ITS). The potential deleterious effects of ITS include (a) shifting the driver out-of-the-loop, such that situation awareness and responsiveness to critical events may be impaired, and (b) behavioral adaptation that undermines system effectiveness. Examples of both effects are presented in relation to an evaluation of an experimental Adaptive Cruise Control system. The importance of considering these effects as part of a formal evaluation protocol is identified in order to maximize the design benefits of ITS. A framework and methodology for the evaluation of automated systems is proposed. © 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Using Observer Ratings to Assess Situation Awareness

Abstract: : This chapter reviews the development and use of observational measures to assess situation awareness among fighter pilots. The chapter begins with a general description of air combat and situation awareness. The next two sections summarize the general approach and the results of this effort. The chapter concludes with a discussion of the advantages and disadvantages with this approach and some general comments on the problems involved in measuring concepts that are as ill-defined as situation awareness (SA).

Next generation marine precision navigation system

Abstract: The US Navy plans to improve its capabilities for precision engagement, full dimensional protection and focused logistics. These objectives will be achieved through network centric warfare, which emphasizes systems rather than platforms, and uses advanced communications to network individual platforms, and provide significant improvement in their collective performance. In order to share intelligence effectively across platforms, each platform must maintain an accurate knowledge of its position. Common to all of the current requirements and future plans is the need to maintain accuracy with reduced dependence on GPS. With a view toward these current and future Navy marine navigation applications, Lockheed Martin Electronics and Surveillance Systems-Mitchel (NE&SS) is attempting to identify common cost-effective solutions for all Navy marine platforms. The objective is to provide accurate navigation and enhanced situational awareness without reliance on GPS. Some of the approaches that are addressed in this paper are extensions of techniques used with exceptional success in the navigation subsystem of the Fleet Ballistic Missile (FBM) Program. In particular, this paper discusses gravity technology, terrain contour matching fix technology, and sonar velocity technology. The paper also discusses the benefits gravity technology brings to navigation in the littoral.

Tactical Decision-Making Under Uncertainty: Experiments I and II

Abstract: : This report discusses the results of two experiments conducted on the effect of uncertainty situation awareness and tactical decision-making. In Experiment I, testers investigated whether graphical representations of enemy intent enhanced memory and situation awareness for that information above baseline. In Experiment II, they investigated whether the level of uncertainty regarding enemy strength and capabilities would influence the time it takes to make a tactical decision and the nature of the decision itself.

Cultural Barriers to Multinational C2 Decision Making

Abstract: : National cultural differences present barriers to successful coalition command and control. The challenge is compounded by distributed decision making that characterizes many operations. If U.S. military personnel are to work effectively in coalition operations, they have to understand the complexities presented by national cultural differences. This paper reviews cultural differences that can disrupt situational awareness, decision making, coordination, and communication in multinational coalitions. These differences are in power distance, dialectical reasoning, counterfactual thinking, risk assessment, uncertainty management, and activity orientation. The authors propose a Cultural Lens concept that captures cultural differences in reasoning, judgment, and authority structure. A Cultural Lens is a metaphor to allow those involved in C2 operations to see their world as if through the eyes of other participants. They will understand how options are conceptualized and evaluated. This ability to decenter supports anticipation of actions, accurate judgments, and effective negotiation of differences. A Cultural Lens will strengthen common ground and the coordination of action. It aims at enhancing understanding, grounding training, and optimizing the design of decision support systems. As multinational coalitions account for more of military operations and Operations Other Than War (OOTW), national culture differences will need to be managed.

Situation awareness in air traffic control : enhanced displays for advanced operations

Abstract: Future changes in the National Airspace System indicate a self-separation operational concept This study examined the Air Traffic Control Specialist's ability to maintain situation awareness and provide needed monitoring and separation functions under this concept The study also provides an empirical evaluation of the effects of an enhanced display concept as a window on the existing air traffic control radar display This window furnished the targeted altitude or heading of aircraft in a transitionary state This information simulated that provided by a data link from the aircraft flight management system in a future air traffic operation

The When and How of Using 2-D and 3-D Displays for Operational Tasks

Abstract: Three different cannonical viewpoints into a 3D domain are defined to create a taxonomy of 3D displays. We then show how the information processing demands of each display viewpoint, provides benefits and or imposes costs on four categories of tasks, involving travel, image matching or situation awareness, visual search, and precise judgments. These task-display interactions are illustrated from experiments in aviation display design, battlefield judgments, and data visualization. Conclusions are offered regarding two possible ways of addressing the task-display interactions in design.

Visualization for situational awareness

Abstract: We focus on theater-wide situational awareness covering a large geographic area containing many military units. The Joint Operations Visualization Environment (JOVE), developed at Sarnoff to assist military decision makers, optimizes the display of tactical data for information presentation. JOVE uses three rear-projected displays driven from an SGI Onyx2 Infinite Reality2 computer. Stereoscopic display is available. A joystick, graphical user interface, and speech commands provide interaction. JOVE delivers accurate navigation through the model over a range of viewer positions. This case study describes techniques used for effectively modeling and navigating geospatial and tactical data for situational awareness. The visualization technology could be applied to commercial air traffic control, emergency management response, and geographic information systems as well.

A template-based and pattern-driven approach to situation awareness and assessment in virtual humans

Abstract: Situation awareness and assessment are fundamental components of rational virtual humans. They are central parts of models of virtual humans and critical elements of efficient reasoning and planning systems. In this paper, we describe our efforts of developing the capability of situation awareness in autonomous, synthetic virtual pilots in a military domain. After briefly describing the motivations of this research, we present an agent architecture that integrates perception, reasoning with situation awareness, and actions. We describe a representation of situations, methods for situation assessment, and applications of situation awareness in information collection, and creating focused attention. The quantitative measure from our experiment shows that by using focused attention based on the ability of situation awareness, the perceptional load of virtual pilots is significantly reduced, reducing pilots’ response time by more than 50 percent.

Errors in situation assessment: Implications for system design

Abstract: An analysis of human error in different domains shows that much of it is not due to poor decision making, but poor situation awareness. These situation awareness problems can be tied to a number of factors associated with the system design and operational conditions under which people must perform their tasks. Following a structured approach from analysis to design to testing, SA can be incorporated as a significant and attainable design goal that can significantly reduce this class of human error. It is important that such procedures are applied in the design process to address the very real problems leading to poor SA and human performance errors in complex settings. While not all human error is preventable, a significant portion of those problems that are currently labelled as human error can be addressed proactively and successfully by tackling the major design factors that lead to situation awareness problems.

Cognitive Engineering: Designing for Situation Awareness

Abstract: This chapter addresses the issue of situations. What is a situation and what are the best ways to represent the situation so that designers can fully appreciate the cognitive and performance requirements that must be satisfied for successful adaptation? The chapter addresses the issue of awareness and discusses the process of analyzing distributed cognitive systems. It attempts to emphasize the parallels in D. Marr's and Jens Rasmussen's descriptions for the constraints that shape performance of complex systems. The chapter outlines levels of description for the problem space or for the problem constraints. The construct of situation awareness (SA) provides a good introduction to the field of cognitive engineering. The general function level best illustrates the organizational constraints within a complex system. Rasmussen's physical form level represents the hardware implementation and physical details of the work domain. Skill-based processing tends to develop most naturally in environments where the consistencies are represented in the space–time properties of continuous feedback.

A qualitative spatial model for information fusion and situation analysis

Abstract: In this paper, we present a qualitative spatial model that is particularly suitable for situation analysis and information fusion. Situation analysis is a process that leads to situation awareness. Information fusion is an important aspect of situation analysis. Many studies have shown that, in order to support a commanding officer in gaining and maintaining situation awareness, a situation analysis support system must ensure a cognitive fit between the officer's mental approach and the system's interactions and processing. Spatial reasoning is one of the main mental processes that the commanding officer performs to analyze a situation. It allows for the evaluation of many key information elements that are required for situation assessment such as the location, disposition, arrangement, distance, etc, of objects. In practical situations, commanding officers mainly use qualitative spatial reasoning. Therefore, a qualitative spatial model seems to be highly suitable to ensure a cognitive fit with the mental spatial model of officers. This paper presents such a model, elaborated at Defence Research Establishment Valcartier (DREV), that is inspired from the human spatial reasoning approach and that it is particularly appropriate for the situation analysis process. It is based on the concept of the influence area, which is a portion of space that people build around objects in order to contextually reason about space, evaluate metric measures, qualify positions and distances, etc. We use the concept of influence area to formally define major spatial model. The paper shows why and how our model is well appropriate to perform the situation analysis process with regard to the cognitive fit constraint. Finally, we describe other military applications that could also benefit from such a model.

Tactile Instrument for Aviation

Abstract: Spatial disorientation and the subsequent loss of situation awareness account for a significant percentage of fatal mishaps in aviation. In our normal earth-bound environment, spatial orientation is continuously maintained by correct information from three independent, redundant, and concordant sensory systems: vision, the inner ear or vestibular system, and the skin, joint, and muscle receptors or somatosensory system. However, in the aviation environment, the vestibular and somatosensory sensations currently do not provide accurate orientation information. The only reliable source of orientation information is vision. For this reason, spatial disorientation mishaps occur when information from the visual system is compromised (e.g., temporary distraction, increased workload, transitions between visual meteorological conditions and instrument meteorological conditions, reduced visibility, or boredom), and the pilot subsequently becomes disorientated. The Tactile Situation Awareness System (TSAS) is an advanced flight instrument that uses the sensory channel of touch to provide situation awareness information to pilots. The TSAS system accepts data from various aircraft sensors and presents this information via tactile stimulators or “tactors” integrated into flight garments. TSAS has the capability of presenting a variety of flight parameter information, including, attitude, altitude, velocity, navigation, acceleration, threat location, and/or target location. A series of flight demonstrations were conducted to demonstrate that a pilot could receive situation awareness information using a tactile instrument during flying operations. The first flight demonstration project was conducted in a United States Navy T-34 aircraft. The objectives of the T-34 TSAS flight demonstration program were to demonstrate: • That a significant amount of orientation information can be intuitively provided continuously by the under-utilized sense of touch. • That a pilot using TSAS can effectively maintain control of an aircraft in normal and certain acrobatic flight conditions with no visual cues. The first flight of the TSAS-modified T-34 was 11 October 1995, and seven flight test events were completed by 19 October 1995. During the flight tests, the test pilot in the rear seat was shrouded to block any outside visual cues and all visual flight instruments in the rear cockpit were removed. The test pilot flew the following maneuvers: straight and level for 5 minutes; bank angle capture; pitch angle capture; climbing and descending turns; unusual attitude recovery; loops; aileron rolls; and ground controlled approaches. Results showed that roll and pitch information could be provided by tactile cues via an array of tactors incorporated into a torso harness. The test pilot performed all maneuvers without visual cues, relying solely on tactile cues for attitude information. The T-34 TSAS flight demonstration showed that a pilot relying on tactile information could maintain control of an aircraft. Following the success of the T-34 flight test program, the Joint Strike Fighter TSAS flight demonstration project integrated an array of tactors, a cooling vest, and Global Positioning/Inertial Navigation System technologies into a single system for evaluation in an UH-60 Helicopter. A 10-event test operation was conducted to demonstrate the utility of this advanced human-machine interface for performing hover operations. Objectives of the Joint Strike Fighter TSAS flight demonstration program were to demonstrate: 1 Pronounced Tee Sas.

The Relationship between Mental Workload and Situation Awareness

Abstract: Mental workload and situation awareness are both outgrowths of the practical need to assess operators' performing and managing dynamic complex tasks. Mental workload refers to the cost placed on th...

Crew Situation Awareness in High-Tech Settings: Tactics for Research Into an Ill-Defined Phenomenon

Abstract: In this article I discuss research tactics that can gain empirical access to crew situation awareness in high-tech settings, that is, in settings where multiple crew members have to coordinate their activities with those of an automated system in the pursuit of operational goals. Although deemed an important ingredient for safe and efficient operations, crew-or joint-situation awareness remains ill defined, and results regarding its demonstration or manipulation are often unverifiable and inconclusive. In this article I define the problem of crew situation awareness as it occurs in 2-crew automated cockpits and reinterprets a typical case study of crew situation awareness in light of this definition. The remainder of the article is a methodological contribution that reviews a selection of converging or complementary tactics (both field observations and various forms of simulator studies) that can gain empirical access to crew situation awareness and discusses the trade-offs these tactics represent in terms of experimental validity and reliability.

Nuclear reactor control room simulators: human factors research and development

Abstract: Simulator studies are powerful means for understanding, designing and managing the complexity of nuclear reactor control if, along with their scenarios, they are correctly designed for that purpose. This contribution to an international state of the art of the use of nuclear reactor control room simulators in human factors research and development summarises the trends and novelties in the theories and methodologies (the reduction of the ambitions of cognitive simulation and the renewal of process-tracing methods, the eclectic search for theoretical and methodological complementarity, the conquests of situation awareness and their limitations, the study of cooperation), in the use of the results (with stress on probabilistic human reliability analysis and design of procedures) and in the construction of simulated situations (with stress on part task simulations and on relations between testing practical and empirical hypotheses and testing theoretical ones).

Training teams with collaborative agents

Abstract: Training teams is an activity that is expensive, time-consuming, hazardous in some cases, and can be limited by availability of equipment and personnel. In team training, the focus is on optimizing interactions, such as efficiency of communication, conflict resolution and prioritization, group situation awareness, resource distribution and load balancing, etc. This paper presents an agent-based approach to designing intelligent team training systems. We envision a computer-based training system in which teams are trained by putting them through scenarios, which allow them to practice their team skills. There are two important roles that intelligent agents can play; these are as virtual team members and as coach. To carry out these functions, these agents must be equipped with an understanding of the task domain, the team structure, the selected decision-making process and their belief about other team members' mental states.

Flying a tunnel-in-the-sky display within the current airspace system

Abstract: Enhancing aircrew situational awareness has become recognized as a critical element in reduction of overall aircraft accident rates. Improved display concepts have been investigated for several decades as a means of enhancing awareness of position, flight path, and terrain in three dimensions. One of the most promising is the “Tunnel-in-the-Sky” primary flight display, which presents a three-dimensional depiction of the world with the desired flight path shown as a tunnel or series of hoops. A prototype system was developed to explore the real-world implications of the Tunnel-in-the-Sky display concept. This paper documents flight testing on a Beechcraft Queen Air to investigate real-world operations within the current Air Traffic Control system. A series of tunnel “overlay approaches” was designed on top of existing, published instrument procedures to demonstrate advantages for nonprecision approaches, closely spaced parallel approaches, and noise abatement. Results indicated an order of magnitude reduction in cumulative flight technical error on approach. The flight tests also showed that Tunnel-in-the-Sky displays could improve aircrew situational awareness and operational flexibility during these flight operations.

Comparison of Two Situation Awareness Metrics: SAGAT and SA-SWORD

Abstract: The role of situation awareness (SA) in aircrew safety and survivability continues to be of considerable interest to the aviation community. Various methods of measuring SA have been proposed. Amon...