Showing papers on "Situational ethics published in 1986"

Ethical Decision Making in Organizations: A Person-Situation Interactionist Model

Abstract: An interactionist model of ethical decision making in organizations is proposed. The model combines individual variables (moral development, etc.) with situational variables to explain and predict the ethical decision-making behavior of individuals in organizations. A major component of the model is based on Kohlberg's cognitive moral development model which provides the construct definition, measurement tools, and theory base to guide future business ethics research. Research propositions are offered and practical implications are discussed.

A Behavioral Model of Entrepreneurial Supply

Abstract: A BEHAVIORAL MODEL OF ENTREPRENEURIAL SUPPLY One of the more persistent debates among researchers of entrepreneurship is between the "Trait" and "Contingency" schools. The first postulates that entrepreneurs share a common type of personality which "explains" their behavior. David McClelland is probably the best-known representative of this long-established school, which continues to have many supporters. Recent research on the subject, however, appears to be moving away from the concept of entrepreneurial personality and toward a contingency view of entrepreneurship as a response to particular situations. According to this second view, the personality traits required of entrepreneurs tend to vary as external conditions change. Researchers at the Harvard Business School are among the leding proponents of this second view. Another advocate of this newer approach is Peter Drucker, who claims that "what all the successful entrepreneurs have in common is not a certain kind of personality, but a commitment to the systematic practice of innovation. One question which arises in relation to the situational approach to entrepreneurship is that of the type of environment (or contingency) which is most likely to give rise to the entrepreneurial response. According to Drucker, almost every situation seems to offer its own inducement for innovative responses. For example, our current economy, with its declining industrial base, seems to have opened opportunities for entrepreneurial response in other, more promising sectors, such as health and education. Are Drucker's conclusions supported by statistics? Drucker himself relies heavily on anecdotal evidence. In this article an objective test is proposed in which a simple model is used to measure the extent to which particular environmental factors elicit or hinder the entrepreneurial response. The shortcomings of the econometric technique in measuring predominantly behavioral phenomena have been well documented. The authors propose to escape some of these limitations by using an economic model driven by a behavioral theory. A synthesis of this type provides the theoretical under-pinnings of the new field of behavioral economics. It seems especially suitable for research on factors influencing entrepreneurship, as various practical difficulties have restricted the amount of large-scale empirical research on this subject. In more precise terms, the authors propose to use two closely-related behavioral explanations of entrepreneurial supply to identify economic aggregates (in the form of readily available macro-economic variables) which may help explain changes in the level of entrepreneurship. The particular behavioral hypothesis chosen for this task--the "push" and "pull" hypotheses--are explained in part two. The components of the model are described in part three, and results obtained from its application are presented in part four. These results appear to lend indirect support to Drucker's optimistic conclusion. The last two parts of the article consist of a discussion of the findings and a summary and conclusion. THE "PUSH" AND "PULL" THEORIES OF ENTREPRENEURSHIP Empirical research on entrepreneurial motivation has produced two broad, and to some extent competing, hypotheses. These are popularly known as the "push" and "pull" theories of entrepreneurial motivation. Proponents of the "push" theory argue that people are pushed into entrepreneurship by negative situational factors such as dissatisfaction with existing employment, loss of employment, and career setback. These negative events, they contend, tend to activate latent entrepreneurial talent and push individuals into business activities. Psychological evidence supporting the "push" theory includes, in addition to direct studies of the relationship between job satisfaction and the decision to become an entrepreneur, studies which variously describe entrepreneurs as "misfits," "rejects from society," and "displaced individuals. …

The Self-Serving Bias in Attributions as a Coping Strategy A Cross-Cultural Study

Abstract: The present study suggests that American students tend to use an individual coping strategy (ie, self-serving attributions) more than Japanese students do in dealing with success and failure experiences However, this tendency was observed only on the ability-related dimensions of attention and memory The patterns of attributions seem to suggest that on the other dimensions, the subjects' causal inferences about their task performance are relatively reason-able rather than self-serving One possible interpretation of this finding is that different cultural groups have different ways of coping with such inherently ambiguous issues as a person's ability; but in the face of obvious situational information, their judgments converge, although they leave some differences due to cultural preferences

Relations Between Situational Factors and the Comparative Referents Used by Employees

Abstract: In this article the authors discuss research they conducted that examined the relationship between the situational factors an employee faces and the referents they use when comparing their work to ...

The Social Relations Model: An integrative method for personality research

Abstract: As outlined by Snyder and Ickes (1985), the study of personality can be undertaken using one of three research approaches dispositional, situational, and interactive We show how the Social Relations Model provides an integrative method to estimate simultaneously dispositional, situational, and interactive effects Reviewed are component approaches to the study of personality The Social Relations Model is shown to be a component model (a special case of generalizability theory) applied in a social interaction context In the model, dispositional, situational, and interactive effects are termed actor, partner, and relationship effects, respectively The Social Relations Model can be used to answer a number of important issues in personality research The model can be used to assess reliability, measure the validity of self-ratings, and validate self-report inventories The model requires special designs in winch each person interacts with multiple partners Empirical examples are presented in which social anxiety, sex role inventories, and self-disclosure are studied

Helping agents' attitudes towards alcohol-related problems: situations vacant? A test and elaboration of a model.

Abstract: Summary An elaboration of Cartwright's (1980) model explaining agents' negative attitudes to responding to alcohol-related problems (ARPs) is presented Rather than Role Support, Experience, Education and Self-esteem per se being seen as the main variables with effect on therapeutic attitude, it is argued that the effects of these factors are best viewed as contingent upon situational influences operating within agents' occupational contexts An attempt was made to isolate some of these influences by comparing the work situations of 24 Community Psychiatric Nurses (CPNs) and 24 Social Workers Correlational data suggested that an index of Situational Constraint, although it was not independent of Role Support and Experience, could reliably predict levels of attitudes towards ARPs It was found that CPNs expressed significantly more positive therapeutic attitudes towards drinkers than either ‘long-term’ generic, or medical, Social Workers, but were also working under less Situational Constraint It is concluded that social workers do not attain such deep levels of involvement in ARPs as CPNs owing to their more constraining work environments They are, therefore, less open to ARP educational events and are less likely to develop role support contacts Recommendations for future role support provision and training programmes are briefly outlined

A Trait-Situational Analysis of Shyness

Abstract: Few researchers would disagree that the feeling of shyness derives from the interplay of both situational and individual factors. However, situations that lead to shyness have not been extensively researched and consequently are not well understood. As a result, situational factors typically have not been included in theoretical statements about shyness. In order to do so, two issues need to be resolved. First, what kinds of situations lead to the experience of shyness? Second, how do such situations combine with internal psychological factors (e.g., personality) to produce shyness? We have been conducting research relevant to these two issues, and will focus in some detail on the question of how best to predict shyness-related experiences from individual difference and situational variables.

Self, other, and situation-referent automatic thoughts: Interaction between people who have a physical disability and those who do not

Abstract: The nature of facilitatory and inhibitory automatic thoughts concerning interaction between able-bodied college students and students who do and who do not have a physical disability was investigated. Both the valence (positive or negative) and the focus of attention of automatic thoughts (on oneself, on the other person, or on the situation) were studied. Thought listings of 115 able-bodied college students concerning interaction with able-bodied students and with those who have a physical disability were coded as positive or negative and as self-, other, or situation-referent. Comfort interacting and self-efficacy beliefs were also assessed. Results indicate that valence and focus of attention are discrete elements that have differential impact on comfort interacting and self-efficacy beliefs. The situational demands of interaction with able-bodied people and with individuals with a physical disability were shown to have a marked impact not only on comfort but also on the patterning of thoughts generated. The findings illustrate the importance of assessing the effects of differing situational demands on automatic thoughts and highlight the need for both a more sophisticated typology for the coding of cognitions as well as for an empirical approach to classifying thoughts as positive or negative. The implications of the findings for the design of cognitive interventions inteneded to make individuals more comfortable interacting with people who have a physical disability are discussed.

Meaningful activity and psychological models of non-employment

Abstract: Study of the psychology of unemployment has been enhanced by the articulation of two models, one emphasizing personally generated activity: the ‘agency hypothesis’ of Fryer and Payne (1984); the other emphasizing ‘situational factors’: access to key categories of experience primarily provided by employment (Jahoda, 1982). This article broadens the debate to non-employment (unemployment and retirement) and points to a possible synthesis of models by considering the perceived nature of meaningful activity and factors involved in commitment to activity. It also proposes that if the processes involved in commitment are to be fully understood and a deeper understanding of the dynamics of adaptation and reaction to change is to be gained, then the dimension of ‘personal history’ of time-use needs to be added to those of ‘agency’ and ‘situational’ factors. A life themes, lifestyle approach is advocated as one way of undertaking this.

Situational Influences on Reactions to Observed Violence.

Abstract: Although many discussions of the effects of media violence focus on the long-term consequences of frequent exposure to these depictions, short-term influences are also important, and adults as well as children observing aggression are apt to become more aggressive themselves for a brief period afterward. Such an effect is largely due to the activation of ideas and inclinations semantically related to the meaning of the observed event rather than to a long-lasting learning. However, the likelihood of an openly aggressive reaction to television or movie violence is greatly dependent on situational conditions, and the present paper considers some of these conditions. Starting with an examination of what situational factors influence people's desire to view violent programming, this article then proceeds to research bearing on the effects of the presence of other observers, the nature of the available target, situational features operating as retrieval cues, the viewers' interpretations of and thoughts about the violent scenes including their perceived reality, and the observers' focus of attention. The paper argues that research into the effects of media violence should no longer ask how much of an influence is exerted by aggressive protrayals in the media generally, but it should investigate the conditions under which these depictions have a greater or lesser effect.

Informal Influence in the Formal Organization: Psychological and Situational Correlates:

Abstract: Two psychological and three situational variables are studied in terms of their relationship to informal influence over one's super visor and work unit peers. Simple bivariate statistics, stepwise ...

Why People Recreate: An Overview of Research

Abstract: Social and Historical Context Variables. Social Background and Role Characteristics. Socio-economic Status and Co-participant Status Variables. Experiences and Activities. Intellectual Capacities and Personality Traits. Attitudinal Dispositions. Retained Information and Situational Variables.

Learning within Organizations: Sources and Content

Abstract: This study asks what are the important sources of learning available to managers and professionals in organizations? What is actually learned (content)? What and how much is learned from supervisors, peers, and subordinates? Retrospective data collected from men and women in the early to middle career stages indicate that the values of certain learning sources depend on the content of learning and relate to age and a number of situational factors. Also, other individuals with whom the learners typically interact were rated as the most valued learning sources.

Enhancing interest in peer interaction: a developmental analysis.

Abstract: Using an intrinsic motivation paradigm, the effects of providing different reasons for interacting with a peer were examined in terms of children's subsequent interest in playing with the other child. Children (5 1/2, 7, and 9 years old) were randomly assigned to 1 of 3 conditions and provided with identical information about a child presented on a television monitor (that he was nice and had a new Lego game). In the experimental conditions, children were then asked if they wanted to play with the peer either "because he has a new game" (situational information) or "because he's real nice" (dispositional information). The results indicated that, for the 9-year-olds, the dispositional/intrinsic information enhanced subsequent intrinsic interest in the peer relative to the control condition, while the situational information undermined later interest. In contrast, for the younger age groups, the situational information increased interest in peer interaction for the younger age groups in comparison to the control condition, while the dispositional information did not differ from control. The findings are discussed in terms of potential processes underlying these effects.

Ending intimate relationships: Strategies of breaking off

Abstract: This research represents a continuation of efforts to examine the area of bad news delivery and focuses on the messages and subsequent strategies used by people in delivering news of a desire to terminate an intimate relationship. The lack of well‐defined, normative guidelines for such deliveries adds to the problematic nature of the interaction. Based on indepth, unstructured interviews, a framework based on common themes providing a procedural view of the delivery process was constructed. Discussion of various strategies indicated the significance of situational factors in delivering this type of bad news. The study, although exploratory in nature, will hopefully clarify some of the processes involved in the delivery of news of a desire to terminate a relationship and identify several important problems surrounding this complex and serious form of interaction.

I. A. Richards and the Composing Process.

Abstract: Those who are convinced that I. A. Richards could do much more for current teachers of composition than he is being invited to do still find it hard to get a hearing for him. Some of his networks of ideas are difficult to absorb, it is true, chiefly because language is a complex of unique intricacy. But the main immediate problem is that his overall approach to language is so different from what might be called the primary linguistic mindset of the past half century that many language professionals, including composition teachers, now find it something of an uphill struggle to examine Richards on his own terms. Yet Richards, along with a lot of good, practical advice, still offers the best overall theoretical reserve available to teachers of language because he deals primarily with language as it is actually used, continually, by all of us in any of our lives, personal or professional. More restrictive approaches to language, whether grammatical, rhetorical, logical, or linguistical, clearly have potential benefits to language users, including teachers of language, but there finally must be some overall understanding that is fully applicable to actual language in action, even to language of students. Aficionados of any one limited or restricted approach tend to work with language examples that to a greater or lesser degree are simplified and that are isolated from a full context, whether verbal or situational. Such a person tends, as Richards puts it, to yearn "for some mode of controlling language which will spare him from going into the truly generative question, Who, in what situation, is here talking to whom and trying to say what?"l Many branches of modern linguistics long took pride in their techniques of isolating examples of language from all context as much as possible and abstracting the structures, so as to emulate the controlled experiments of science and the controlled relationships of logic. Now semantics and pragmatics are working with such concerns as meaning and context, and to some extent at least semantics, according to a recent, respected text in linguistics, is recovering from the previous view that saw it as linguistically "not quite respect-

Dealing with the difficult older patient

Abstract: Physicians are often asked to intervene when elderly patients in acute or long-term care facilities are disruptive, demanding or abusive. Though medication may be the immediate response, it often fails to solve the problem, which, being situational and behavioural, calls for a situational and behavioural solution. An organized approach to solving such problems is presented that takes into account the interactions among the patient, family, staff, setting and circumstances. The role of the physician as leader in the process is also discussed.

Everyday Experience and Interaction Theory

Abstract: Erving Goffman's “dramaturgy” provides a great stimulus to those who are concerned with studies of forms and implications of everyday human experience in relation to social situation. His dramaturgy is an approach using the theatrical metaphors to describe the subjective as well as the objective fact of social interaction. It assumes that one's “self” is an artificial product presented within the closed system of social situation, just as “a character” on the stage is the output of an existing script, completely detached from the wider world outside the theater.This paper takes note of the forms which the actor may utilize to present his self in accordance with the rules of situational propriety and make his action significant to others. With proper attention to these forms, an attempt is made to explain why Goffman, for all his symbolic interactionist tendency that places stress on the creative subjectivity of the actor, intruded into his school's tabooed area of the objective aspects of situation through the influence of the Durkheimian bias that emphasizes the constraint of social fact. In answering the above question, we also discuss the structure, which, latent in every surface manifestation of experience, attaches meanings to the forms of experience.

Situational and Motivational Assumptions in Theories of Coalition Formation

Abstract: Positive theories of coalition formation deduce expected behavior from two kinds of assumptions: those concerning the situation under study and those regarding the actors' motivations. To improve their theorizing, scholars must not make these two types of assumptions independently; the characteristics of the setting within which the coalition forms crucially influence what a rational actor can be expected to do. Five types of payoff settings are described here, a typology which clarifies differences among major coalition theories and their realms of applicability. Formal theories of cabinet coalitions require greater attention to the complex nature of the payoffs that political parties and their leaders receive. In studying this and other areas of coalition behavior, theorists must link their motivational assumptions to such important situational assumptions as the nature of payoffs.

Pragmatics of discourse in Northern Sotho: A functional approach

Abstract: A distinct analysis is made of the functions of language in the socialization process. This general survey of social pragmatics includes speech used in various situational contexts, such as matrimony, mourning, sacred and ritual situations; language and sex; language of the aged; rules of address; the work situation; etc. The main objective is, however, to emphasize the functional approach and its implications in the study of African languages. S. Afr. J. Afr. Lang. 1986, 6: 46–50