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Showing papers on "Social network published in 1985"


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: There is evidence consistent with both main effect and main effect models for social support, but each represents a different process through which social support may affect well-being.
Abstract: Examines whether the positive association between social support and well-being is attributable more to an overall beneficial effect of support (main- or direct-effect model) or to a process of support protecting persons from potentially adverse effects of stressful events (buffering model). The review of studies is organized according to (1) whether a measure assesses support structure (the existence of relationships) or function (the extent to which one's interpersonal relationships provide particular resources) and (2) the degree of specificity (vs globality) of the scale. Special attention is given to methodological characteristics that are requisite for a fair comparison of the models. It is concluded that there is evidence consistent with both models. Evidence for the buffering model is found when the social support measure assesses the perceived availability of interpersonal resources that are responsive to the needs elicited by stressful events. Evidence for a main effect model is found when the support measure assesses a person's degree of integration in a large social network. Both conceptualizations of social support are correct in some respects, but each represents a different process through which social support may affect well-being. Implications for theories of social support processes and for the design of preventive interventions are discussed.

14,570 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
Sue Birley1
TL;DR: In this article, the authors studied the extent to which the entrepreneur interacts with the networks in his local environment during the process of starting a new firm, based on the premise that, during this process, he is seeking not only the resources of equipment, space, and money, but also advice, information, and reassurance.

1,780 citations


BookDOI
01 Jan 1985
TL;DR: In this article, the authors study the role of social support in reducing stress and depression among men in the Baltimore Longitudinal Study of Aging (LSA) and find that social support is one of the main factors responsible for reducing stress.
Abstract: I Theoretical and Methodological Issues.- 1 Conceptual and Theoretical Dilemmas Facing Social Support.- 2 Social Support: Theoretical Advances, Recent Findings and Pressing Issues.- 3 Social Support - Insights from Assessment and Experimentation.- 4 Social Support and Psychological Well-Being: Theoretical Possibilities.- 5 Measuring the Functional Components of Social Support.- 6 Social Support and Social Health.- II Human Development, Personality and Social Networks.- 7 Social Networks and the Ecology of Human Development: Theory, Research and Application.- 8 Longitudinal Course of Social Support Among Men in the Baltimore Longitudinal Study of Aging.- 9 Intimacy, Social Support, and Locus of Control as Moderators of Stress.- 10 Coping Styles, Social Support and Sex-Differences.- 11 A Conceptualization of Professional Women's Interpersonal Fields: Social Support, Reference Groups, and Persons-to-be-Reckoned-With.- 12 From Social Support to Social Network.- III Loneliness and Perceived Support.- 13 The Psychology of Loneliness: Some Personality Issues in the Study of Social Support.- 14 The Functions of Social Bonds: Perspectives from Research on Social Support, Loneliness and Social Isolation.- 15 Loneliness Research: Basic Concepts and Findings.- 16 Perceived Support and Social Interaction Among Friends and Confidants.- IV Stress, Coping and Maladaption.- 17 Life Stress and Human Disorder: Conceptualization and Measurement of the Disordered Group.- 18 Life Events, Social Support and Clinical Psychiatric Disorder.- 19 Social Support, Life Events and Depression.- 20 Social Support and Children of Divorce.- 21 Limitations of Social Support in the Stress Process.- V Helping and the Costs of Caring.- 22 Theory into Practice: Issues That Surface in Planning Interventions Which Mobilize Support.- 23 Social Support and the Alleviation of Loss.- 24 Reactions to Victims of Life Crisis: Support Attempts That Fail.- 25 The Costs of Caring: A Perspective on the Relationship Between Sex and Psychological Distress.- Author Index.

1,149 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors examine how these methodological techniques and this theoretical approach can be applied to a variety of social phenomena, including how individual actions create social structure, how social structure constrains the individual, and how attitudes and behaviour are determined by social structure.
Abstract: Network analysis is being increasingly looked to as a means of understanding social structure. It can shed light on how individual actions create social structure, how social structure constrains the individual, and how attitudes and behaviour are determined by social structure. Articles by leading proponents of network analysis and structuralism examine how these methodological techniques and this theoretical approach can be applied to a variety of social phenomena. Written by some of the leading proponents of network analysis, this book will be welcomed by professionals in sociology and their students.

677 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this paper, a longitudinal investigation of three fast-food restaurants explored this relationship against the background of the social network structures in each site, finding that the closer the employee was to those who left, the more satisfied and committed he or she became.
Abstract: David Krackhardt and Lyman W. Porter It is argued in this paper that macro and micro perspectives can each benefit from the other. To demonstrate this, a current research issue in micro organizational behavior is analyzed with the help of theories in psychology, social psychology, and sociology. The specific question is: What effect does turnover in an organization have on the attitudes of those who remain in the organization? A longitudinal investigation of three fast-food restaurants explored this relationship against the background of the social network structures in each site. Among the findings was that the closer the employee was to those who left, the more satisfied and committed he or she became. The results underscore the importance of the structural context in studying micro phenomena, while at the same time they demonstrate the richness of micro theory in understanding why these phenomena occur.*

297 citations



Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: This article highlights several network characteristics which are often found to be related to physical and mental health status and suggests how these network characteristics can be applied to the two program strategies which involve interventions at the network and community level.
Abstract: The convincing evidence of the relationship between social support, social networks, and health status has influenced the development of program strategies which are relevant to health education. This article focuses on the linkage between social support and social networks and health education programs which involve interventions at the network and community level. Two broad strategies are addressed: programs enhancing entire networks through natural helpers; and programs strengthening overlapping networks/communities through key opinion and informal leaders who are engaged in the process of community wide problem-solving. Following a brief overview of definitions, this article highlights several network characteristics which are often found to be related to physical and mental health status. Suggestions are made for how these network characteristics can be applied to the two program strategies. Principles of practice for the health educator, and some of the limitations of a social network approach are delineated. The article concludes with a recommendation for engaging in action research--a perspective highly consistent with both the strategies discussed and the concepts of social networks and social support. This approach not only recognizes, but also acts to strengthen indigenous skills and resources.

275 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this paper, both social network variables and individual differences measures (extraversion, neuroticism, and self-disclosure) were predictive of self-reported loneliness in a college student sample.
Abstract: Both social network variables and individual differences measures (extraversion, neuroticism, and self-disclosure) were predictive of self-reported loneliness in a college student sample. Of the social network variables, the density of the network showed the strongest and most consistent relation to

239 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: This paper presented a model of the mobilization of people into movements that is compatible with a resource mobilization perspective on social movement organizations as the unit of analysis, but substitutes a cognitive social psychology based on attribution theory and the sociology of knowledge for the incentive model typically used in this perspective.
Abstract: This paper presents a model of the mobilization of people into movements that is compatible with a resource mobilization perspective on social movement organizations as the unit of analysis, but substitutes a cognitive social psychology based on attribution theory and the sociology of knowledge for the incentive model typically used in this perspective. We focus on the problem, neglected by resource mobilization theorists, of explaining the translation of objective social relationships into subjectively experienced, collectively defined grievances. On a macro level, our model gives independent causal weight to ideology without discounting the role that resources also play in defining group goals. On a social psychological level, we identify three distinct organizational strategies–conversion, coalition, and direct action–for mobilizing persons as participants and examine some cognitive and organizational consequences of each strategy. We conclude that incorporation of a more adequate social psychology of individual participation is not only compatible with the organizational focus and emphasis on rationality of the resource mobilization perspective, but can provide important insights into problems both social movement theorists and social movement organizers see as significant.

192 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: The role of social support as a resource for resisting stress- induced illness and disability is highlighted and three different connotative meanings that have been assigned to the social support construct are identified.
Abstract: Following a brief overview of the stressful life events-illness model and its implications for intervention, this article highlights the role of social support as a resource for resisting stress- induced illness and disability. It identifies three different connotative meanings that have been assigned to the social support construct, and describes their empirical operationalizations in several recent studies. Specifically, the social integration/participation formulation, the social network approach, and the social intimacy measurement strategy are described and contrasted. Within the latter approach, one study that illuminated types of informal helping behaviors is discussed in greater detail. A review of possible mechanisms whereby social support accom plishes its health-protective impact is also offered, and two types of planned interventions involving the mobilization or optimization of social support are spotlighted. The article concludes with ideas about ways that professionals can safeguard the nat...

184 citations


Book ChapterDOI
01 Jan 1985
TL;DR: In this article, the authors argue that one considerable deficiency of much of the contemporary social sciences is their neglect of time and space and argue that social analyses are curiously negligent of the spatio-temporal location and structuring of the phenomena under investigation.
Abstract: It is now becoming common to argue that one considerable deficiency of much of the contemporary social sciences is their neglect of time and space Social analyses are held to be curiously negligent of the spatio-temporal location and structuring of the phenomena under investigation1 This is by obvious contrast with physical science where, for instance, Whitehead claimed that ‘It is hardly more than a pardonable exaggeration to say that the determination of the meaning of nature reduces itself principally to the discussion of the character of time and the character of space’2 However, there are very considerable problems in seeing how space and time can be built into the examination of social relations I will make a number of points of clarification to begin here

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: The study of social support as a resource for resisting stress has been pursued independently of its role in the initiation and maintenance of personal relationships as mentioned in this paper, and the tendency to define and measure support, like loneliness, in psychological rather than transactional terms will further limit knowledge about the conduct of close relationships.
Abstract: The study of social support as a resource for resisting stress has been pursued independently of its role in the initiation and maintenance of personal relationships. Moreover, the tendency to define and measure support, like loneliness, in psychological rather than transactional terms will further limit knowledge about the conduct of close relationships. While psychological or perceived support is strongly coloured by personality variables and is not an accurate predictor of the support that actually materializes, it does play a critical role in the cognitive appraisal process. In contrast, experienced or received support figures centrally in the actual coping process. In addition there are covert, unintentional, and indirect forms of support that have been overlooked due to researchers' exclusive focus on the prosocial potential and behaviours of the social network. The article concludes by spotlighting two topics warranting integrative research in the fields of personal relationships and social support.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this article, the authors present models of well-being and ill-being which integrate the effects of different types of independent variables using the more powerful techniques provided by the LISREL software.
Abstract: The purpose of this paper is to present models of well-being and ill-being which integrate the effects of different types of independent variables. Using the more powerful techniques provided by the LISREL software, the paper replicates and extends analysis previously reported in SIR (Headey, Holmstrom and Wearing, 1984a).

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this article, two longitudinal studies examined the influences of social support, networks, and support interventions on the adjustment of teenage mothers and their babies and found that perceived support, social network resources, and interventions were related to better postpartum adjustment for young mothers and improved health and development for their babies.
Abstract: Two longitudinal studies examined the influences of social support, networks, and support interventions on the adjustment of teenage mothers and their babies. Structured interviews were conducted prenatally and during postnatal follow-up in both studies. Group and home-based educational support interventions were also conducted through the baby's first year of life. Perceived support, social network resources, and support interventions were related to better postpartum adjustment for young mothers and improved health and development for their babies. Some negative effects were also suggested. The results confirm the importance of assessing specific sources of support and of distinguishing between the concepts of perceived support and social networks. Implications for future social support research and interventions are discussed.


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: Cross-sectionally, social network factors were related to level of depressive symptoms; this relationship now needs to be demonstrated prospectively.
Abstract: A total of 1,144 white married women aged 65-75 years living in Washington County, Maryland were interviewed during February-August 1979 as part of a larger study. This cross-sectional analysis was undertaken to investigate the question of whether or not selected demographic, social network, and social support characteristics of these women were related to their level of depressive symptoms. Women at the low end of the socioeconomic scale were found more likely to have a high level of depressive symptoms than were women at the high end. Two structural characteristics, size and homogeneity of the social network, were also found to be related to symptoms of depression, although only homogeneity of the social network reached statistical significance. There was a larger percentage of women with a high level of depressive symptoms among those with small networks and among those with heterogeneous networks. Those women with good quality networks, which offer the opportunity for social support, were much less likely to have a high level of depressive symptoms than others. Cross-sectionally, social network factors were related to level of depressive symptoms; this relationship now needs to be demonstrated prospectively.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: This article used Fischer's data collected from 1,050 respondents living in 50 northern California localities to examine hypotheses derived from Blau's theory and found that ethnic and religious heterogeneity encourage interethnic and interreligious social interactions despite the negative effects of in-group preferences on such interactions.
Abstract: Blau's macrostructural theory focuses on explanation of rates of social contacts between people with different social characteristics. The theory is composed of two analytically distinct categories of social structure. One category is distributional; that is, it refers to properties that emerger from size distributions of social characteristics. The other is a social network approach to social interactions. This article uses Fischer's data collected from 1,050 respondents living in 50 northern California localities to examine hypotheses derived from Blau's theory. The findings suggest that social structure constrains choice: ethnic and religious heterogeneity encourage interethnic and interreligious social interactions despite the negative effects of in-group preferences on such interactions.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors examined how both network characteristics and support may change in the months and years immediately following a divorce and found that in the year following divorce, social networks become more homogeneous and allow for greater support as they become denser and more kin-filled.
Abstract: Although a mother's adjustment to divorce appears to be related to the support provided by her social network, it is unclear which network characteristics are associated with the provision of support. The present study examines this question while exploring how both network characteristics and support may change in the months and years immediately following a divorce. Thirty-eight mothers were interviewed following divorces, and again one year later, concerning the structural and interactional characteristics of their social networks and the support available to them. Results indicated that characteristics associated with the support a mother receives may differ from the characteristics associated with how satisfied she feels with her network. In addition, in the year following divorce, social networks become more homogeneous and allow for greater support as they become denser and more kin-filled. These findings are discussed in light of mothers' needs as they attempt to adjust to their new identities as divorced, single parents.


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors re-examine the question of the socialfabric of urban neighborhoods on the basis of residents' personal networks and find that the effects of proximity were more, rather than less, reflected in the spatial distribution of social relationships in the ethnically heterogeneous neighborhoods.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: The authors found that participants tend to discount their high frequency co-interactants for whom they, in turn, are relatively low-frequency co interactants, in favor of those with whom they are reciprocally high.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: Dysfunctional families evidenced asymmetrical reciprocity within network relationships and had more stressful home environments than did nonclinical families and it is suggested that diagnostic evaluation of these families should assess the level of meaningful support provided by the social network.
Abstract: Structural and functional features of social networks and demographic variables were explored in a study of 50 clinic-referred and 76 nonclinic black, low-income, single-parent families. Dysfunctional families evidenced asymmetrical reciprocity within network relationships and had more stressful home environments than did nonclinical families. It is suggested that diagnostic evaluation of these families should assess the level of meaningful support provided by the social network.

Book ChapterDOI
01 Jan 1985
TL;DR: The authors distinguish between types of supportive behaviors, e.g., emotional and material aid, and point out the need for different types of support to buffer the effects of stresses on health.
Abstract: Where once analysts tended to treat social support as a single global concept, most now distinguish between types of supportive behaviors, e.g., emotional and material aid. Yet many studies still conceive of “support” itself as a real phenomenon, underlying and unifying all of the various supportive behaviors (see the critiques in Hall and Wellman, 1982, 1984; Wellman, 1981). Moreover, most studies have focused on the consequences of supportive behavior (perceived or unperceived), asking, for example, if social supports buffer the effects of stresses on health (see the reviews in Hammer, 1983; Thoits, 1982).

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: It is found that a larger social network is more important for those less able to utilize the resources available in their networks effectively, while among those more able to mobilize support from their networks, size is less important.
Abstract: The goals of the study are to assess the relationship between social ties and health status and to determine if factors that may inhibit or enhance the mobilization of resources available in social ties specify this relationship. Two factors which may influence the effective use of social network resources perceived control and trusting others, are examined as possible moderating factors. The study population includes 2,603 adults, who were randomly selected from among the enrollees of a large health maintenance organization. The subjects were part of a large household interview survey. Medical record data covering seven years of outpatient services were linked with the survey data on the respondents. The findings indicate that having more social ties, being more trustful of others and perceiving more control are all related to having better health. Perceived control does specify the relationship between social ties and health status. The findings suggest that a larger social network is more important for those less able to utilize the resources available in their networks effectively, while among those more able to mobilize support from their networks, size is less important. The implications for health education research and practice are discussed.


Book
01 Mar 1985
TL;DR: The role of the social sciences in shaping and evaluating social policy is examined in this article, where the authors consider the past, present and potential role of social science in policy creation, implementation, and evaluation.
Abstract: This book examines the role of the social sciences in shaping and evaluating social policy It considers the past, present and potential role of the social sciences in policy creation, implementation, and evaluation processes The authors present a considerable range of opinions about the ability of the social sciences to provide useful information is presented The common view is that the social sciences can contribute to policy-making processes to a modest extent

Book
01 Jan 1985
TL;DR: This article presented social psychology as a dynamic, evolving scientific discipline with substantial relevance to people's lives and presented a method to make use of social psychology to improve people's health and well-being.
Abstract: Present social psychology as a dynamic, evolving scientific discipline with substantial relevance to people's lives


Book ChapterDOI
01 Jan 1985
TL;DR: In this article, the authors consider the role of personality and individual differences in the experience of loneliness and by implication in the process of social support and suggest that individuals vary considerably in their ability to achieve interpersonal goals as well as in the skill and confidence necessary to interact with others effectively.
Abstract: With certain exceptions, the literature on social support has not emphasized personality issues, focusing instead on the availability of support networks, and the ways in which they contribute to health and well-being. Similarly, little attention has been paid to those factors that might influence the probability of either developing or accessing a supportive social network. Research on relationships and interpersonal behavior more broadly conceived, however, suggests that individuals vary considerably in their ability to achieve interpersonal goals as well as in the skill and confidence necessary to interact with others effectively. The purpose of the present paper then is to consider the role of personality and individual differences in the experience of loneliness and by implication in the process of social support.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: Suggestions are presented for how health care professionals can intervene at the individual, network, and organizational level to strengthen and enlarge social networks in order to enhance social support.