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Showing papers on "Social psychology (sociology) published in 2014"


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: This article reviews the available evidence and finds support for four claims: (1) Academic psychology once had considerable political diversity, but has lost nearly all of it in the last 50 years, and increased political diversity would improve social psychological science by reducing the impact of bias mechanisms such as confirmation bias, and by empowering dissenting minorities to improve the quality of the majority's thinking.
Abstract: Psychologists have demonstrated the value of diversity--particularly diversity of viewpoints--for enhancing creativity, discovery, and problem solving. But one key type of viewpoint diversity is lacking in academic psychology in general and social psychology in particular: political diversity. This article reviews the available evidence and finds support for four claims: (1) Academic psychology once had considerable political diversity, but has lost nearly all of it in the last 50 years. (2) This lack of political diversity can undermine the validity of social psychological science via mechanisms such as the embedding of liberal values into research questions and methods, steering researchers away from important but politically unpalatable research topics, and producing conclusions that mischaracterize liberals and conservatives alike. (3) Increased political diversity would improve social psychological science by reducing the impact of bias mechanisms such as confirmation bias, and by empowering dissenting minorities to improve the quality of the majority's thinking. (4) The underrepresentation of non-liberals in social psychology is most likely due to a combination of self-selection, hostile climate, and discrimination. We close with recommendations for increasing political diversity in social psychology.

338 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: Evidence that social connectedness is key to understanding the development and resolution of clinical depression is presented, and an agenda for future research is presented to advance theoretical and empirical understanding of the link between social identity and depression.
Abstract: Social relationships play a key role in depression. This is apparent in its etiology, symptomatology, and effective treatment. However, there has been little consensus about the best way to conceptualize the link between depression and social relationships. Furthermore, the extensive social-psychological literature on the nature of social relationships, and in particular, research on social identity, has not been integrated with depression research. This review presents evidence that social connectedness is key to understanding the development and resolution of clinical depression. The social identity approach is then used as a basis for conceptualizing the role of social relationships in depression, operationalized in terms of six central hypotheses. Research relevant to these hypotheses is then reviewed. Finally, we present an agenda for future research to advance theoretical and empirical understanding of the link between social identity and depression, and to translate the insights of this approach into clinical practice.

329 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: An overview of some recent research comparing human children with their nearest living relatives, the great apes, in various tests of collaboration, prosocial behavior, conformity, and group-mindedness is provided.
Abstract: In evolutionary perspective, what is most remarkable about human sociality is its many and diverse forms of cooperation. Here, I provide an overview of some recent research, mostly from our laboratory, comparing human children with their nearest living relatives, the great apes, in various tests of collaboration, prosocial behavior, conformity, and group-mindedness (e.g., following and enforcing social norms). This is done in the context of a hypothetical evolutionary scenario comprising two ordered steps: a first step in which early humans began collaborating with others in unique ways in their everyday foraging and a second step in which modern humans began forming cultural groups. Humans' unique forms of sociality help to explain their unique forms of cognition and morality. © 2014. The Authors. European Journal of Social Psychology published by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

324 citations


DOI
04 Apr 2014
TL;DR: The authors found that those in low-status groups in a social hierarchy are more hypervigilant and ruminative information processors compared to their higher status counterparts, especially members of groups on whom they are evaluatively dependent.
Abstract: This chapter suggests that social uncertainty can contribute to the development of irrational forms of distrust and suspicion that impede activities critical to the processes creating and sustaining the social self. The links between social uncertainty and the development of social paranoia bring us back, full circle, to a consideration of the inherently relational nature of the social self. The model of the vigilant social auditor that we advanced earlier helps explain this pattern. From a social information-processing perspective, those in low-status groups in a social hierarchy are likely to be more hypervigilant and ruminative information processors compared to their higher status counterparts, especially members of groups on whom they are evaluatively dependent. Tokens feel the social pressure of imagined audience scrutiny, and may do so even when the audience of majority group members treats them no differently from nontokens.

313 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: The current results highlight the power of weak ties, suggesting that even social interactions with the more peripheral members of the authors' social networks contribute to their well-being.
Abstract: Although we interact with a wide network of people on a daily basis, the social psychology literature has primarily focused on interactions with close friends and family. The present research tested whether subjective well-being is related not only to interactions with these strong ties but also to interactions with weak social ties (i.e., acquaintances). In Study 1, students experienced greater happiness and greater feelings of belonging on days when they interacted with more classmates than usual. Broadening the scope in Studies 2A and 2B to include all daily interactions (with both strong and weak ties), we again found that weak ties are related to social and emotional well-being. The current results highlight the power of weak ties, suggesting that even social interactions with the more peripheral members of our social networks contribute to our well-being.

291 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors examine how social media use affects social connectedness in terms of three elements of adolescent development: sense of belonging, psychosocial wellbeing, and identity development and processes.
Abstract: As social media use is rising among adolescents, the issue of whether this use leads to positive or negative outcomes warrants greater understanding. This article critically reviews the literature related to this important topic. Specifically, we examine how social media use affects social connectedness in terms of three elements of adolescent development: sense of belonging, psychosocial wellbeing, and identity development and processes. Mixed findings are reported regarding the role that social media plays in fostering social connectedness, which suggests that young people may experience both positive and negative psychological outcomes. As a result, this article argues that online tools create a paradox for social connectedness. On one hand, they elevate the ease in which individuals may form and create online groups and communities, but on the other, they can create a source of alienation and ostracism. This article contributes to ongoing discourse in the area of educational and developmental psychology, and has implications for researchers and practitioners working with adolescents.

268 citations



Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: This study provides further empirical support for the conceptual separation of emotional and social loneliness, and policy on loneliness in older people should be directed to developing a range of divergent intervention strategies if both emotional andsocial loneliness are to be reduced.
Abstract: Objectives: Loneliness is an important influence on quality of life in old age, and has been conceptualised as consisting of two dimensions, social and emotional. This paper describes analyses that ...

222 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: The authors argue that undergraduate women use slut stigma to draw boundaries around status groups linked to social class, while also regulating sexual behavior and gender performance, and that slut discourse enables, rather than constrains, sexual experimentation for the high-status women whose definitions prevail in the dominant social scene.
Abstract: Women’s participation in slut shaming is often viewed as internalized oppression: they apply disadvantageous sexual double standards established by men. This perspective grants women little agency and neglects their simultaneous location in other social structures. In this article we synthesize insights from social psychology, gender, and culture to argue that undergraduate women use slut stigma to draw boundaries around status groups linked to social class—while also regulating sexual behavior and gender performance. High-status women employ slut discourse to assert class advantage, defining themselves as classy rather than trashy, while low-status women express class resentment—deriding rich, bitchy sluts for their exclusivity. Slut discourse enables, rather than constrains, sexual experimentation for the high-status women whose definitions prevail in the dominant social scene. This is a form of sexual privilege. In contrast, low-status women risk public shaming when they attempt to enter dominant social worlds.

193 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors identify the main moderators of indirect contact, and distinguish two different routes, one cognitive and one cognitive-to-affective, from cognitive to affective to behavioural outcomes.
Abstract: Research in social psychology has provided impressive evidence that intergroup contact reduces prejudice. However, to the extent that strategies based on direct contact are sometimes difficult to implement, scholars have more recently focused on indirect contact. An effective form of indirect contact is extended contact. According to the extended contact hypothesis, simply knowing that ingroup members have outgroup friends (extended contact), or observing these friendships vicariously (vicarious contact), can improve intergroup relations. Since its initial formulation a large body of studies has supported the validity of the extended contact hypothesis. In reviewing the available literature on two forms of indirect contact (extended and vicarious), we outline a model that identifies their antecedents and consequences, spanning from cognitive to affective to behavioural outcomes. In addition to identifying the main moderators of indirect contact, we also distinguish two different routes, one cognitive and ...

189 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: The study of prejudice, or why certain groups or categories of persons experience systematic dislike or devaluation, has been an important issue for the social sciences since the early twentieth century as mentioned in this paper.
Abstract: The study of prejudice, or why certain groups or categories of persons experience systematic dislike or devaluation, has been an important issue for the social sciences since the early twentieth ce...

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this paper, gender socialization is examined through a social psychological lens by applying identity theory and identity control theory to understand socialization dynamics that exist for children and families, and how emotions operate within an internal control system to stabilize gendered identities and perpetuate the social structure.
Abstract: Gender socialization is examined through a social psychological lens by applying identity theory and identity control theory. Current research from the fields of family and sociological social psychology are surveyed to provide a better conception of how the family operates as agents of socialization, and how identities that are cultivated and fostered in youth provide meaning throughout the life course and maintain the social order. The application of identity theory shows how gender is a diffuse status characteristic, which is salient in person, role, and social (group) identities, and also across social situations. Identity control theory is applied to show how emotions operate within an internal control system to stabilize gendered identities and perpetuate the social structure. Both theories are specifically applied to understand socialization dynamics that exist for children and families.

DOI
04 Apr 2014
TL;DR: In this paper, the effect of the group on the person and the impact of the person on the group is discussed. And the authors address two aspects of the relationship between groups and individuals.
Abstract: A core issue in the field of social psychology is the basis of the connection between people and the groups of which they are members-the reason(s) that people join and stay in groups, that they follow group rules, and that they act on behalf of groups. In this chapter we address two aspects of this relationship: the effect of the group on the person and the effect of the person on the group.

BookDOI
14 Jan 2014
TL;DR: In this article, the authors present an interactive activation and competition model of social perception and social categorization in a recurrent connectionist network, which is used to model social influence and group interaction.
Abstract: Contents: Preface. Part I: Person Perception and Impression Formation. P. Thagard, Z. Kunda, Making Sense of People: Coherence Mechanisms. S.J. Read, L.C. Miller, On the Dynamic Construction of Meaning: An Interactive Activation and Competition Model of Social Perception. Part II: Stereotyping and Social Categorization. Y. Kashima, J. Woolcock, D. King, The Dynamics of Group Impression Formation: The Tensor Product Model of Exemplar-Based Social Category Learning. E.R. Smith, J. DeCoster, Person Perception and Stereotyping: Simulation Using Distributed Representations in a Recurrent Connectionist Network. Part III: Causal Reasoning. F. Van Overwalle, D. Van Rooy, A Connectionist Approach to Causal Attribution. Part IV: Personality and Behavior. Y. Shoda, W. Mischel, Personality as a Stable Cognitive-Affective Activation Network: Characteristic Patterns of Behavior Variation Emerge From a Stable Personality Structure. Part V: Attitudes and Beliefs. T.R. Shultz, M.R. Lepper, The Consonance Model of Dissonance Reduction. M. Ranney, P. Schank, Toward an Integration of the Social and the Scientific: Observing, Modeling, and Promoting the Explanatory Coherence of Reasoning. Part VI: Social Influence and Group Interaction. A. Nowak, R.R. Vallacher, Toward Computational Social Psychology: Cellular Automata and Neural Network Models of Interpersonal Dynamics. J.R. Eiser, M.J.A. Claessen, J.J. Loose, Attitudes, Beliefs, and Other Minds: Shared Representations in Self-Organizing Systems.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: It is argued that trust is a modality of action that is relational, emotional, asymmetrical, and anticipatory, and Hence, trust does not develop through information and the uptake of knowledge but through emotional involvement and sense-making.
Abstract: Current discussions on public trust, as well as on risk communication, have a restricted rationalistic bias in which the cognitive-reflexive aspect of trust is emphasized at the expense of its emotional aspect. This article contributes to a substantive theory of trust by exploring its emotional character. Drawing on recent discussions in science and technology studies, social psychology, and general social theory, it argues that trust is a modality of action that is relational, emotional, asymmetrical, and anticipatory. Hence, trust does not develop through information and the uptake of knowledge but through emotional involvement and sense-making. The implications of this conception of trust for public understandings of science and for risk communication are discussed.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: This article charts the development of this Applied Social Identity Approach, and abstracts five core lessons from the research that has taken this forward.
Abstract: Social identity research was pioneered as a distinctive theoretical approach to the analysis of intergroup relations but over the last two decades it has increasingly been used to shed light on applied issues. One early application of insights from social identity and self-categorization theories was to the organizational domain (with a particular focus on leadership), but more recently there has been a surge of interest in applications to the realm of health and clinical topics. This article charts the development of this Applied Social Identity Approach, and abstracts five core lessons from the research that has taken this forward. (1) Groups and social identities matter because they have a critical role to play in organizational and health outcomes. (2) Self-categorizations matter because it is people's self-understandings in a given context that shape their psychology and behaviour. (3) The power of groups is unlocked by working with social identities not across or against them. (4) Social identities need to be made to matter in deed not just in word. (5) Psychological intervention is always political because it always involves some form of social identity management. Programmes that seek to incorporate these principles are reviewed and important challenges and opportunities for the future are identified.


DOI
04 Apr 2014
TL;DR: In this article, the authors present two models that encapsulate important differences between Chinese and US social organization, and show that Chinese social structure conforms more closely to the Individual Accommodates Structure model, and U.S. social structure is more similar to the Structure-Accommodates Individual model.
Abstract: Many of the most influential theoretical perspectives in social psychology concern how a person cognitively represents and emotionally identifies with groups: social identity theory, social categorization theory and the group value model. Scholars of cultural psychology have objected to the tendency in contemporary social psychology to take the behavior of an individual as a given quality, which can be isolated in the laboratory and made to interact with other factors. The social identity perspective is another research tradition that rejects methodological individualism and envisions a role for social structure in the psychology of the self. Proponents of this tradition have maintained that society is made up of social categories, which its members use to interpret social behavior. This chapter presents two models that encapsulate important differences between Chinese and US social organization. Chinese social structure conforms more closely to the Individual Accommodates Structure model, and US social structure conforms more closely to the Structure Accommodates Individual model.

Proceedings Article
16 May 2014
TL;DR: A model that can predict the success of unseen requests is developed and linked to research in psychology on helping behavior, providing a basis for further analysis of success in social media systems.
Abstract: Requests are at the core of many social media systems such as question & answer sites and online philanthropy communities. While the success of such requests is critical to the success of the community, the factors that lead community members to satisfy a request are largely unknown. Success of a request depends on factors like who is asking, how they are asking, when are they asking, and most critically what is being requested, ranging from small favors to substantial monetary donations. We present a case study of altruistic requests in an online community where all requests ask for the very same contribution and do not offer anything tangible in return, allowing us to disentangle what is requested from textual and social factors. Drawing from social psychology literature, we extract high-level social features from text that operationalize social relations between recipient and donor and demonstrate that these extracted relations are predictive of success. More specifically, we find that clearly communicating need through the narrative is essential and that linguistic indications of gratitude, evidentiality, and generalized reciprocity, as well as high status of the asker further increase the likelihood of success. Building on this understanding, we develop a model that can predict the success of unseen requests, significantly improving over several baselines. We link these findings to research in psychology on helping behavior, providing a basis for further analysis of success in social media systems.

Book ChapterDOI
01 Sep 2014

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this article, the authors present the gap between conceptualizations of social injustices and the desired social transformation that addresses multiple social subsystems and levels on one hand, and social justice leadership that addresses intra-school efforts on the other.
Abstract: Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to present the gap between conceptualizations of social injustices and the desired social transformation that addresses multiple social subsystems and levels on one hand, and social justice leadership that addresses intra-school efforts on the other. The paper aims to expand the conceptualization of social justice leadership and tie it together with concepts of activism and social change. Design/methodology/approach – The paper adopts a socio-ecological perspective. It reviews works about social justice leadership in education, activism, and social change to present the notion that in light of existing social justice barriers educational leaders should serve as activists in schools and in the community and policy areas. Findings – The paper presents a macro framework, focussing on individual leaders in the field and on the consolidation of intentions, actions, and outcomes in a manner necessary for using social justice as an effective socio-political agenda in a soci...

BookDOI
01 Oct 2014
TL;DR: EUROPEAN INFLUENCES: FRENCH and GERMAN SOCIOLOGY and SOCIAL Theory ANGLO-AMERICAN INFLUEENSES: AMERICAN AND BRITISH SOCIOLOGIA AND SOCIAL THEORY ORGANIZING SOCIAL WORLDS as mentioned in this paper.
Abstract: EUROPEAN INFLUENCES: FRENCH AND GERMAN SOCIOLOGY AND SOCIAL THEORY ANGLO-AMERICAN INFLUENCES: AMERICAN AND BRITISH SOCIOLOGY AND SOCIAL THEORY ORGANIZING SOCIAL WORLDS: SOCIOLOGY, ORGANIZATION STUDIES AND THE 'SOCIAL'

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors consider a possible objection to the direct perception hypothesis from social psychology, related to phenomena like "dehumanization" and "implicit racial bias" which manifest themselves on a basic bodily level.
Abstract: In this paper, we first review recent arguments about the direct perception of the intentions and emotions of others, emphasizing the role of embodied interaction. We then consider a possible objection to the direct perception hypothesis from social psychology, related to phenomena like ‘dehumanization’ and ‘implicit racial bias’, which manifest themselves on a basic bodily level. On the background of such data, one might object that social perception cannot be direct since it depends on and can in fact be interrupted by a set of cultural beliefs. We argue, however, that far from threatening the idea of direct perception, these findings clearly contradict the idea of hardwired theory of mind modules. More generally, we suggest that in order to further the understanding of social cognition we must take seriously insights about in-group and out-group distinctions and related phenomena, all of which are currently neglected in the mainstream social cognition literature.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: This paper argued that climate change is one of the most important global challenges in the twenty-first century, given that a changing climate is likely to have negative and potentially irreversible consequences for the environment and human beings.
Abstract: Climate change is one of the most important global challenges in the twenty-first century, given that a changing climate is likely to have negative and potentially irreversible consequences for the environment and human beings Drawing upon Social Representations Theory (SRT) and Identity Process Theory (IPT) from social psychology, we argue that research should focus upon, and successfully integrate, three levels of analysis, namely (1) how climate change knowledge is constructed and circulates (social representation); (2) the role of identity in relation to these representations (identity); and (3) how people might respond to them (action) It is suggested that identity processes may determine how people process social representations of climate change, and that they mediate the link between representations and environmental behavior Understanding human responses to climate change necessitates an integrative social sciences perspective, in terms of disciplinary, theoretical, and methodological approaches

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: This article examined how social stereotypes influence listeners' perceptions of indexical language and found that stereotypical attitudes and beliefs about categories of speakers serve to enable the association of linguistic features with particular social meanings while simultaneously blocking others.
Abstract: This article examines how social stereotypes influence listeners' perceptions of indexical language. Building on recent developments in linguistics and social psychology, I investigate the extent to which stereotypical attitudes and beliefs about categories of speakers serve to enable the association of linguistic features with particular social meanings while simultaneously blocking others. My arguments are based on an analysis of listener perceptions of the intersecting categories of gender, sexuality, and social class among men in the UK. Using a modified matched-guise paradigm to test three category-relevant variables (mean pitch, spectral characteristics of /s/, and TH-fronting), I demonstrate how the perception of social meaning is governed by a combination of both attitudinal and cognitive factors. This finding is important because it illustrates the listener-dependent nature of sociolinguistic perception. Moreover, it also provides further empirical support for an understanding of social meaning as an emergent property of language-in-use. (speech perception, attitudes and stereotypes, sexuality, phonetic variation)*

01 Jan 2014
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors proposed that social processes and behavior are dynamical and change over time, and that behavioral change is conceptualized as the difference between static measures and is modeled by covarying responses on such measures.
Abstract: All social processes fundamentally involve change in time: Judgments materialize quickly over milliseconds or seconds, conversations flow over minutes, and relationships evolve across even longer time scales. Put simply, social systems are dynamical systems. The word “dynamical” simply means time-evolving and thus a dynamical system is simply a system whose behavior evolves or changes over time. Proposing that social processes are dynamical is not new and has a long history in social psychology (e.g., Asch, 1952; Lewin, 1936; Mead, 1934). Moreover, most researchers in social-personality psychology would agree that social processes and behavior are dynamical and change over time. Traditionally, however, socialpersonality psychology, like experimental psychology in general, has focused on summary statistics, which aggregate over time, such as in the form of magnitudes (e.g., behavioral frequencies, emotional intensities, and so on). This traditional approach is rooted in the linear statistical methods developed by Fisher and others (Meehl, 1978), and is aimed at detecting whether treatments or manipulations, on the whole, affect the outcome of some measured behavioral state or variable. Behavioral change is therefore conceptualized as the difference between static measures and is modeled by covarying responses on such measures. Unfortunately, this traditional approach merely describes behavioral change; it does not capture true time evolution and so is not always optimal for understanding the process by which behavioral change occurs. To make progress in our understanding of psychological change and process, therefore, researchers need to consider adopting new tools and methodological concepts, namely those of dynamical systems. The scientific study of dynamical systems is concerned with understanding, modeling, and predicting the ways in which the behavior of a system changes over time. As a formal approach, it has a long history in applied mathematics and physics, and has been used extensively to understand and model the behavior of many different types of physical systems, such as the motion (position and velocity) of planets, mass-spring systems, swinging pendulums, and selfsustained oscillators. In the last few decades, however, an increasing number of researchers have begun to investigate and understand the dynamic behavior of more complex biological, cognitive, and social systems, using the concepts and tools of dynamical systems. The term “complexity” refers to the fact that most biological, cognitive, and social systems typically exhibit behavior that is nonlinear and involves a large number of interacting elements or components. Historically, it is the nonlinearity of complex dynamical systems that has largely hindered research on such systems, in that the numerical techniques that enable one to uncover the dynamics of nonlinear and complex dynamical systems involve an extensive number of computational processes that are impossible to perform without modern computers. This is true for both abstract nonlinear dynamical models (covered in the second section of this chapter) and for the analysis of behavioral data (discussed in the third section). These days, of course, these difficulties of computation no longer exist, and researchers can formulate and analyze many nonlinear and complex dynamical systems quite easily. Indeed, the fields of nonlinear dynamics and complex systems, as well as our theoretical understanding of such systems, have grown in parallel with

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: It is argued that the Francis Report's emphasis on a 'culture of compassion and caring in nurse recruitment, training and education' is misconceived, because an interlocking set of contextual factors that are known to affect social cognition led to the events in Mid Staffs.
Abstract: This paper discusses compassion failure and compassion deficits in health care, using two major reports by Robert Francis in the UK as a point of reference. Francis enquired into events at the Mid Staffordshire Hospital between 2005 and 2009, events that unequivocally warrant the description 'appalling care'. These events prompted an intense national debate, along with proposals for significant changes in the regulation of nursing and nurse education. The circumstances are specific to the UK, but the issues are international. I suggest that social psychology provides numerous hints about the mechanisms that might have been involved at Mid Staffs and about the reasons why outsiders are blind to these mechanisms. However, there have been few references to social psychology in the post-Francis debate (the Francis Report itself makes no reference to it at all). It is an enormously valuable resource, and it has been overlooked. Drawing on the social psychology literature, I express scepticism about the idea that there was a compassion deficit among the Mid Staff nurses - the assumption that the appalling care had something to do with the character, attitudes, and values of nurses - and argue that the Francis Report's emphasis on a 'culture of compassion and caring in nurse recruitment, training and education' is misconceived. It was not a 'failure of compassion' that led to the events in Mid Staffs but an interlocking set of contextual factors that are known to affect social cognition. These factors cannot be corrected or compensated for by teaching ethics, empathy, and compassion to student nurses.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: It is confirmed that effort expectancy, social influence, and performance expectancy significantly affect students' intentions to use SNS for expressive participation in Internet social movements.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this article, the authors investigated the role that positive psychological capital (PPC) plays in the relationship between social support (SS) and subjective well-being (SWB), and the results showed that PPC, SS, and SWB were positively related.
Abstract: A growing body of empirical evidence has shown that although social support (SS) can predict subjective well-being (SWB), the relationship between SS and SWB is still unclear. In this study we investigated the role that positive psychological capital (PPC) plays in the relationship between SS and SWB. The results showed that PPC, SS, and SWB were positively related. The more important result, however, was that PPC mediated the relationship between SS and SWB. The findings are discussed in the context of the importance of PPC for SWB. Limitations in this study and implications for future research are identified.