Showing papers on "Social system published in 1978"

Conceptual dimensions and boundaries of participation in organizations: a critical evaluation.

Abstract: This paper outlines a broad conceptual framework for participation in organizations, which provides an overview of four defining dimensions of participatory social arrangements in organizations and their often complex interdependencies. The dimensions of participation discussed in this paper include the social theories underlying participatory social systems and the values and goals each of them implies for participation, the major properties of participatory systems, the outcomes of participation in organizations, and the contextual characteristics of participatory systems which limit or enhance their potential. The view of participation presented in this paper is of a multidimensional, dynamic social phenomenon, the study of which transcends questions unique to any given discipline paradigm and which requires an integration of micro and macro questions. The implications of this conceptualization for theory building, research, and methodology are briefly discussed.

Status inconsistency and role conflict

Abstract: The idea that a social structure is not necessarily consistent in the demands it imposes on, or in the expectations it generates in, its occupants and the persons who interact with them has served sociology powerfully over a long period of time. This idea is at least implicit, for example, in Marx's analysis of the contradictions in class structure and the dialectic through which these contradictions work themselves out; in Weber's delineation of the multiple principles on which a stratification system can be built; in Sumner's postulate of a strain toward consistency in the elements of culture; in Pareto's treatment of the gap between elite definition and capacity; in Durkheim's vision of the possibilities inherent in the division of labor; in Park's and his students' elaboration of the concept of marginal man; in Thomas' writings on the conflicts of values and attitudes; and in Linton's treatment of the relationships between social system and society. This chapter focuses on two contemporary versions of this basic idea, the concepts of status inconsistency and role conflict, and on their literatures. Our interest is in the consequences of the social structural and normative inconsistencies, contradictions, and conflicts that are the referents of these concepts. The concept of status inconsistency has its origin in a macrostructural orientation to sociology; the concept of role conflict has its origin in a somewhat more microstructural view and in social psychological theoriz-

Economics and Contiguous Disciplines

Abstract: Economists are working more in the other social sciences. To discover whether this trend is likely to continue, we need to know the reasons why it is happening. It has come about largely because of the use of such techniques as quantitative methods or cost-benefit analysis with which economists are familiar and, more recently, by economists using economic theory as a basis for studying political science, sociology, law and the like. To the extent that such work by economists depends on the possession of superior techniques or approaches, it is not likely to continue, since other social scientists should be able to master such techniques or approaches where they are valuable and will be more familiar with the subject matter. But economists also study other social systems because their working is so intermeshed with the economic system as to make it impossible to discuss usefully the economic system without simultaneously considering these other social systems. This is particularly true of parts of the legal system. This being so, we may expect the scope of economics to be permantly enlarged to include studies in the other social sciences.

The Sick Role: Assessment and Overview

Abstract: Despite the growing criticisms of Parsons' original formulation (Parsons 1951), it is impossible to discuss the sick role without acknowledging his fundamental contribution in helping to bridge the conceptual gap between biological, psychological, cultural, and social processes. Moreover, his for­ mulation of the sick role generated a wide number of diverse studies in the field, as well as several instructive criticisms and reassessments (Gallagher 1976; Wilson & Bloom 1972; Freidson 1972; Twaddle & Hessler 1977; Segall 1976a; Gerson 1976; Twaddle 1969). It must be understood that Parsons (1951) chose to examine the specific subsystem of modern medical practice to illustrate his more abstract functional analysis of the larger social system, and that he was addressing the broader questions of modern­ ization, the role of the professions, and the social control of deviance. Whatever the limitations in his original conceptualization, Parsons essen­ tially was advancing an ideal-type model, the main outlines of which are well known. Briefly, he viewed sickness as a form of deviance, which posed problems for the individual and for the social system. However, a person who plays the sick role has certain privileges and exemptions denied to other types of social deviants. Four institutionalized expectations are pre­ sumed to adhere to the sick role. The occupant is exempted from "normal social role responsibilities, which of course is relative to the nature ami severity of the illness" (Parsons 1951:436). [A number of critics may not have read this qualification carefully.] The sick person is not blamed, and in the case of more serious illnesses, it is understood he cannot improve merely by an act of will or through everyday remedies, but requires care by others. However, the person must regard the state of illness as undesir­ able, must seek competent help, and comply with prescribed health regi-

Marx's Theory of the Falling Rate of Profit: Towards a Dialectical Analysis of Structural Social Change

Abstract: Conventional sociological theory is unable to account for endogenous change at the structural level. While various sociologists have attempted to develop aframework that would account for such change by abstracting formalized elements out of Marxist theory, these efforts-precisely because of their highly formal nature-are unsuccessful. Marx's theory itself seeks to explain change as built into the contradictory survival requirements of class societies conceived as closed social systems. The forces militating for change play themselves out with quasiautomatic necessity. The direction of change depends partly on the structural parameters and partly on the consciousness of individuals organized into social classes. It is argued that the utility of Marx's approach is tied both to his overall theoreticalframework, and its rootedness in specific historical, social and economic conditions. This argument is illustrated with reference to Marx's theory of the falling rate of profit under conditions of competitive capitalism.

The developmental logic of social systems

Abstract: Addresses the fundamental structures and processes of social change in the tradition of 'grand' social theory. At a time when development has come into question, both as theoretical concept and as policy goal, this theoretical analysis makes a sharp distinction between growth and development, and reasserts the centrality of development for understanding macro-historical change in a global perspective. '...they do have interesting, closely argued and provocative ideas concerning developmental change. Their opening sections, detailing their general stance and systems-theoretic approach, are excellently constructed, luring the reader to read on with genuine interest.' -- American Political Science Review, Vol 73, No 4

Collective Consumption and Urban Contradictions in Advanced Capitalism

Abstract: Social inequality is the most obvious expression of any class society in so far as the place occupied in the system of production determines the distribution of the product among social groups, for, from the moment that we deny the inherent connection between the system of social stratification (related to the economic and symbolic distribution of the product) and the system of social classes (based on the system of production and, hence, on the power relationships between the classes), and make the former depend on the latter, it becomes necessary to spell out the specific form of this social inequality according to the phases of a mode of production and the historical formation of a social system. Thus the history of eternal disparity between the ‘rich’ and the ‘poor’, based on a fatalism with perfect results for the dominant classes, gives way to the precise analysis of the social production of differentiation at the level of consumption and to the study of the basic logic of a certain type of social relations which are experienced in the form of oppressive daily life.

Actors, Games, and Systems : The Dialectics of Social Action and System Structuring

Abstract: This paper outlines several of the key concepts and principles with which we try to describe and analyze how processes and structures in social systems are formed, reproduced, and transformed. Our theoretical perspective draws on and attempts to develop modern systems theory and game theory. The influence of Marxian theory and research is also apparent. Our approach may be referred to as actor-oriented systems analysis. It addresses itself (1) to systems as sources of constraint and regulation of social action and interaction and (2) to actors and their activities as driving forces for the maintenance or change of systems. The first part of the paper refers briefly to several general ideas which lie in back of our approach. Part II of the paper suggests several applications of the approach in research. Part III outlines key conceptual elements, several methodological features, and research guidelines of the approach.

Human Relations School

Abstract: Classical theory emphasised the coordination of the physical processes and the adjustment of human beings to these processes. The human relations approach coordinated the human and social elements within the plant or firm into a functioning whole. Human relations theorists assumed the physical processes and structure of organisation as given. Such a structure, according to them, contained a social system, an equilibrating social organism, a complexity of groups and cultural currents — in short a plant society. This is another way of saying that human relations is deeply concerned with attitudes, values, and emotional responses, or more generally with the social psychology of men and groups.

Analyzing Social Systems: An Application of Parsons's Macrosystem Model to the Organizational Level and the Sociotechnical Perspective

Abstract: An analysis of a social system requires, in addition to data-collection instruments, an organizing paradigm by which the data can be made to depict the system as a unified, functioning entity. The Parsonian model of social systems is applied to organizations. Four basic social subsystemsgoal attainment, adaptation, latency, and integration-are discussed along with data-collection techniques. Some data can be obtained with formal instruments, others only with more casual techniques. The technology employed by an organization affects all four subsystems; it should not be looked upon as a monolithic subsystem by itself. There is a particular sequence of interaction among the four subsystems, beginning with goal attainment and ending with integration. This has implications for organizational diagnosis, design, and development.

Communication networks and social change in developing countries.

Abstract: This paper analyzes and summarizes the major body of literature generated with regard to the communication networks and social change in developing countries. The results suggest that communication is a necessary factor for change to take place but it is not a sufficient condition. When there are opinion leaders who link the parts of a social system whose norms favor change and external communication travels from the outside of the social system through opinion leaders to the community change is triggered. Heterophily of association is not conducive to change by itself but when there are opinion leaders who bridge the heterophily gap from the outside to the inside of a social system the possibility for change to occur is heightened. If the norms of a social system in general are negative towards change then any effort towards change is likely to fail since informal opinion leaders tend to adhere to the norms of the system. In this case preliminary efforts towards social change should be directed at creating a more favorable generalized disposition towards change. These results are discussed under the light of available theory and evidence and a comprehensive multivariate model is proposed for future inquiry. (authors)

The Cognitive Claims for Computer Models The Case of Forrester's Urban Dynamics

Abstract: In Urban Dynamics, Forrester presents a computer model capable of projecting the growth and decay of cities. The author defends the use of computer models by making the strong epistemological claim that causal analysis of complex social systems is doomed to failure because the way such systems work is counterintuitive. It is my contention, however, that counterintuitive results of a computer model have only heuristic value. Such results by themselves do not constitute valid knowledge.

Counsellor preparation in a developing social system

Abstract: The need for an organized activity of assistance is more generalized every day in the midst of a complex and rapidly changing world. Such an area of professional service acquires peculiar dimensions within various social frameworks. Primarily an auxiliary function, it is directly dependent both upon the characteristics of the population to be served, and upon the determinants of the environment where such population exists. Counselling, within the realm of assistance, is fundamentally an area of support. As such, it is inevitably tied

Management By Appreciation

Abstract: In the study of social systems, we are becoming used to asking questions about the nature of the ‘language’ that systems use to manage and communicate with themselves and their environments. Essentially, the ‘language’ that a system uses will determine its picture of the world — its ‘reality’ — and consequently also the quality of its relationship with its particular environment. Contemporary concern with ecological problems has served to highlight this problem and has implied that our traditional philosophies of management are employing ‘languages’ which, in important respects, are out of joint with a balanced and mutually supportive relationship between system and environment.

Corrections, deviance, and social system stability.

Abstract: Social control within a complex adaptive system is analyzed through the concept of requisite system variety in order to develop a conceptualization to assess the impact of various correctional modalities on social system viability. It is thus possible to critique contemporary strategies of criminal corrections in terms of their overall implication for social system change and to assess their potential contributions to long-run social system stability and adaptability.

Control Theory and Social Change: Toward a Synthesis of the System and Action Approaches

Abstract: Social theories are of two basic types, involving either autonomous systems or purposive action; each type has its own distinct notion of ‘control’. In purposive action theories, individual actors are said to control certain events in attempting to further their personal self-interests. The early action theory of Parsons, symbolic interactionism, theories of psychological and economic motivation, the exchange theories of Homans and Blau — all are examples of the purposive action approach to control. In theories involving systems, by contrast, causal or power relations are maintained in equilibrium, either stable or dynamic, by some form of autonomous control relationships. System approaches include demographic and ecological theories, the later work of Parsons on social systems, Mertonian structural-functionalism, the conflict theory of Simmel and Coser, and Levi-Strauss’ functional theory of social exchange.

Demythologizing Traditional Interpretations of the Greek Educational System

Abstract: Until recently the main paradigm in Greek sociology has been that of synchronic empirical sociology, what Mouzelis calls "the social stratification approach" (pp. 57-60). Its main concern has been with the detailed study of a given segment of the Greek social system-be it a village, an institution, or a social stratum at a given point in time-by means of questionnaires, interviews, participant observations, and analysis of secondary sources. In short, the most common approach to the study of Greek society has been ahistorical and microsociological. From the 1950s onward Greek sociologists primarily have applied social survey methods and techniques. Their guiding models have been Durkheim's study of suicide and P. Lazarsfeld's operationalism. Neither Parsonian functionalism and role analysis nor Marxist class analysis (with the exception of V. Filias's work)' nor the critical sociology approach of the Frankfurt School have emerged as conflicting or complementary

12 – Social Organizations

Abstract: Publisher Summary This chapter discusses social organizations. A formal organization exists and functions to reconcile the objectives that can best be achieved by group effort with the objectives of individual participants in the organization. Formal organizations arose with division of labor, which has increased the working effectiveness. Most technologies, especially those in medicine, could not have been developed or applied without a complex division of labor. Such division of labor has its costs, however, including incomplete utilization of personal interests and talents, and the need to subordinate personal idiosyncrasies to interdependence with others. Certain characteristics of the model of formal organizations bear a close resemblance to those of a biological system. Despite some similarities, a model for formal social organizations differs from that usually proposed for biological systems. While social organizations can be constructed for a great variety of purposes, much of the energy expenditure in such organizations must be devoted to standardizing the variability and reducing the conflict, which the human participants bring to an organization. Social systems are longer- and shorter-lived than biological systems. Social systems components are less tightly integrated, but can be replaced readily; however, the biological systems components wear out eventually and they cannot be replaced.

Perspectives on community as a social system.

Abstract: This paper seeks to analyze processes and roles within the community as a setting for mental health work. The author contends the social workers can utilize linkages and resources more effectively by training community as a social system. Furthermore, the community approach to mental health problems appears to be a logical framework to organize and harmonize different subsystems. A two-dimensional, conceptual model brings into focus two mutually supportive considerations within this framework: community and mental health. Systemic linkages between the mental health group and the welfare community are further conceptualized to signify their importance in the MR programs. A critique is presented of the changing professional roles of the community organizer in a society where welfare services are organized for the less competent individuals within a complex web of values and antivalues. Social workers' dynamism in self-shaping their professional roles toward improving the quality of life is highlighted.

System Modeling in Space

Abstract: The word “system” is interpreted in various ways by different people. To some of my colleagues in computer science and management information systems, the word implies computer systems, and a systems analyst usually means computer systems analyst. To the scholars in organizational psychology, the word is used for organizational systems. They argue that the study of business, social or any other organization needs an overall approach, meaning any change in one area is going to affect another area. In sociology, the use of a social system concept is well known through the development of Talcott Parsons’ theory [1961].