Showing papers on "Social system published in 2002"

System Dynamics: Systems Thinking and Modeling for a Complex World

Abstract: Todays problems often arise as unintended consequences of yesterdays solutions. Social systems often suffer from policy resistance, the tendency for well-intentioned interventions to be defeated by the response of the system to the intervention itself. The field of system dynamics, created at MIT in the 1950s by Jay Forrester, is designed to help us learn about the structure and dynamics of the complex systems in which we are embedded, design high-leverage policies for sustained improvement, and catalyze successful implementation and change. Drawing on engineering control theory and the modern theory of nonlinear dynamical systems, system dynamics often involves the development of formal models andmanagement flight simulators� to capture complex dynamics, and to create an environment for learning and policy design. Unlikepureengineering problemsif any existhuman systems present unique challenges, including long time horizons, issues that cross disciplinary boundaries, the need to develop reliable models of human behavior, and the great difficulty of experimental testing. Successful change in social systems also requires the active participation of a wide range of people in the modeling and policy design process, people who often lack technical training. In this paper I discuss requirements for the effective use of system dynamics and illustrate with a successful application to a difficult business issue.

Evolution of primate social systems

Abstract: We review evolutionary processes and mechanisms that gave rise to the diversity of primate social systems. We define social organization, social structure and mating system as distinct components of a social system. For each component, we summarize levels and patterns of variation among primates and discuss evolutionary determinants of this variation. We conclude that conclusive explanations for a solitary life and pair-living are still lacking. We then focus on interactions among the 3 components in order to identify main targets of selection and potential constraints for social evolution. Social organization and mating system are more closely linked to each other than either one is to social structure. Further, we conclude that it is important to seek a priori measures for the effects of presumed selective factors and that the genetic contribution to social systems is still poorly examined. Finally, we examine the role of primate socio-ecology in current evolutionary biology and conclude that primates are not prominently represented because the main questions asked in behavioral ecology are often irrelevant for primate behavior. For the future, we see a rapprochement of these areas as the role of disease and life-history theory are integrated more fully into primate socio-ecology.

Can Social Systems Be Autopoietic? Assessing Luhmann's Social Theory:

Abstract: The theory of autopoiesis, that is systems that are self-producing or self-constructing, was originally developed to explain the particular nature of living as opposed to non-living entities. It was subsequently enlarged to encompass cognition and language leading to what is known as second-order cybernetics. However, as with earlier biological theories, many authors have tried to extend the domain of the theory to encompass social systems, the most notable being Luhmann. The purpose of this article is to consider critically the extent to which the theory of autopoiesis, as originally defined, can be applied to social systems - that is, whether social systems are autopoietic. And, if it cannot, whether some weaker version might be appropriate.

The Seductions of Resistance: Power, Politics, and a Performative Style of Systems

Abstract: Studies of resistance challenge overly structural conceptions of social systems by emphasizing the various forms of creative practice operating within hegemonic space. Yet, by illustrating the different ways that agents respond to a dominant system, resistance theory inadvertently establishes that system as a preestablished entity. Thus, although resistance theory endeavours to recognize the ongoing deconstructs of systems, it simultaneously reifies the system as primary. In response, I argue that this problem is not indicative of a flaw in resistance theory per se, but rather of a flaw in the conception of systems it operates with. Drawing upon Butler's work on performativity, I develop an alternative theory of systems that accounts for social coherence and stratified relations of power through creative forms of social practice alone. Rather than depending on sociostructural concepts such as ideology, hegemony, and normative space, a performative theory of systems situates creative social practice as the...

Relationship assessment through emotional mediation

Abstract: Social relationship is a concept that links the observable social interactions between group members to the inferred group social system. Social relationships allow animals (as well as the human observers) to predict the actions and responses of their partners and therefore guide their own. Social relationships can also be described as investments that benefit the individuals involved in them. Some benefits simply require stable association and some level of mutual tolerance, whereas others depend on the establishment of more fully developed social relationships. The variation in the quality of social relationships leads to a great flexibility in the frequency and quality of interaction with various group members and with the same individual over time. A key issue is therefore to understand the proximate mechanisms underlying such flexibility since individuals need to be able to assess relationship quality in order to maximise the benefits that social relationships provide. Assessment of social relationships should be based on the information contained in the various interactions that the partners exchange. Assessment should therefore require bookkeeping of the various interactions, computation of their relative frequencies, and conversion of their quality and information associated with them into common currencies. We propose emotional mediation as a possible mechanism that fulfils such requirements and provides the individual with a timely assessment to guide its social decision. Emotions are viewed as intervening variables that result from the integration of the information contained in the various interactions between two partners. Before presenting evidence for relationship assessment through emotional mediation, we define the concept of emotion in animals and provide evidence for measuring relevant emotions in non-human primates. Then, we present four examples obtained by combining findings from multiple studies. The examples provide evidence for emotion resulting from information contained in the interactions exchanged by the partners and for emotional differences being at the basis of the variation in social interactions. Thus, animals may appreciate variation in their social relationships through emotional mediation. This is a promising avenue to disclose the proximate mechanisms of relationship assessment and we suggest new lines of research to gather further evidence for the role of emotional mediation.

Social trajectories and the evolution of social behavior

Abstract: Helms Cahan, S., Blumstein, D. T., Sundstro¨m, L., Liebig, J. and Griffin, A. 2002.Social trajectories and the evolution of social behavior. – Oikos 96: 206–216.Current research on the evolution of sociality seeks to integrate a wealth ofspecies-specific studies to draw more generalized conclusions. Developing a unifiedtheory of social evolution has been a challenging process, hampered by the inherentcomplexity of social systems. By viewing a species’ social structure as the result of aseries, or ‘‘trajectory’’, of decisions individuals make about whether or not to dispersefrom their natal territory, whether to co-breed or refrain from breeding, and whetheror not to provide alloparental care, we can more easily evaluate whether selectivefactors influencing each social decision are similar across taxa. At the same time, thesocial trajectory framework highlights the interrelationships among different socialdecisions, both throughout the life of an individual and over evolutionary time. Thereare likely to be multiple unifying themes within sociality research; we hope that thesimple framework outlined here will promote exchange between researchers acrosstaxonomic disciplines to begin to identify common principles.

The Functions of the Social Worker in Empowering: The Voices of Consumers and Professionals

Abstract: The concept of "empowerment" has been accepted widely in recent years and now is used extensively in the field of social work (Gutierrez, Parsons, & Cox, 1998; Lee, 1994; Simon, 1994; Solomon, 1976). This approach, which first developed in the 1970s, increasingly is used in welfare policy, social programs, or direct intervention, and it replaces the traditional therapist-client model of the helping relationship (Gutierrez, 1992; Pinderhughes, 1983; Rappaport, 1981; Shera & Page, 1995). Over the years, the empowerment concept has taken shape and acquired meaning primarily through the work of social theorists, rather than practitioners or consumers of services. The process of theory development has been deductive and top-down rather than inductive and bottom-up. It should be noted that there is disagreement and debate about the most empowering term to denote the individuals who are served or assisted by social work professionals. A variety of terms, including "clients," "customers," "users," and consumers," all have been used, and each in turn has been criticized for being inadequate in some respect. Recognizing this problem, we have chosen to use the term "consumer" primarily in this article. Although the word leaves much to be desired, in our judgment, it is the most widely accepted term by those wishing to use language that reflects empowering relationships. The concept of "power" goes to the heart of empowerment theory. Lukes (1974) described two aspects of power: "power to" and "power over. The "power to" involves an individual's ability to act efficaciously to bring about desired results. Such capability is central to the meaning of empowerment; and the kinds of experiences, competences and skills necessary to actualize empowerment is a consistent theme in the literature about this concept. Much of the literature deals with components and subelements of personal empowerment, such as self-efficacy, self-esteem, mastery, perceived competence, and assertiveness (Bolton & Brokline, 1998; Kieffer, 1984; Weaver, 1982; Zimmerman & Rappaport, 1988;). The development of consciousness-raising and critical thinking abilities also is a common theme (Gutierrez, 1990; Lee, 2001; Moreau, 1990;), as is building knowledge, capacities and skills (Andrus & Ruhlin, 1998; Beaulaurier & Taylor, 1999; Cox, 1991; Zimmerman, 1995). On the other hand, Lukes (1974) asserted that "A exercises power over B when A affects B in a manner contrary to B's interests" (p. 27, emphasis added). However, there is much disagreement about how power is exercised and what constitutes people's interests. Those from a pluralist perspective have focused on contested interests and the manner in which decisions are made (Dahl, 1961). Others have called attention to a second, hidden dimension--the ability to control the realization of interests by preventing decisions from being made (Bachratz & Baratz, 1962) or the nonuse of power by elites to prevent social conflicts and to preserve social order (Gaventa, 1980). Still others have explored the construction of power combining both personal and social dimensions (Giddens, 1982) or the "real interests" which may not even be perceived by B because A is able to construct and define social reality. This conceptualization of power is relational, and empowerment refers to processes and outcomes whereby less powerful individuals and groups move to reduce discrepancies in power relationships either through zero-sum, win-lose strategies or mutual benefit, win-win approaches. For example, Rubenstein and Lawler (1990) submitted that empowerment should be viewed through connections and mutually empathic relations. They suggested that personal empowerment and the relational context through which it emerges must be considered simultaneously. Zimmerman, Israel, Schultz, and Checkoway (1992) identified an interactional component of empowerment that refers to the connections and transactions between people and environments that lead to successful mastery of social systems. …

Institutions to sustain ecological and social systems

Abstract: Summary The foundation for a sustainable future is the continuation of ecological processes and functions across landscapes dominated by human activity; whether hunter-gathering, agriculture, pastoralism, suburban living, commercial and industrial centres or wilderness recreation. However, actions to sustain ecological systems, flows and functions must be integrated across the human dimensions of regional landscapes. Such regions encompass natural areas, human living places and a mosaic of other land uses. Institutional change is required to develop new organizational forms, adjust policies and develop adaptive capacity to demonstrate restoration and maintenance of all forms of social, economic and ecological capital. No matter where on the globe, future sustainability will depend on the system of resource governance that mediates the relationship between the society and the economy and, in contrast, the continuation of ecosystem functional processes. The present article examines the forms of capital, social and institutional change that need to be considered to make progress towards sustainable futures. The discussion further considers the spatial management context in which these interweaved social, ecological and economic processes take place. Key words ecological, forms of capital, governance, institutions, landscape, social.

Social conventions in computer-mediated communication: a comparison of three online shared virtual environments

Abstract: Recent studies of social processes via the Internet have begun to concentrate on the question of whether computer-mediated communication enables people to build up social relations with other persons despite geographical dispersion [1, 2]. It sill seems to be rather unclear whether the Internet can support the development of new forms of social structures, such as virtual communities, which exhibit social binding and social coherence comparable to those in real life. Studies that support the assumption that computer-mediated communication generates new forms of social systems [3, 2] are confronted with a more skeptical assessment, which raises the question of whether the variables used to provide evidence for this are really valid [4]. Critics refer to the absence of commonly-shared life-world perspectives in online communities [3], while more optimistic researchers point out that a common background in online environments is generated by communication [5, 6, 2].

The theorization of social co-ordinations in differentiated societies: the theory of generalized symbolic media in Parsons, Luhmann and Habermas.

Abstract: The problem of the differentiation of societies is at the core of the sociological imagination about the rise of modernity. In postwar sociology, T. Parsons developed the theory of generalized symbolic media in the mid-1960s to tackle, theoretically and historically, the issue of differentiation. According to him, the interchange media are defined as resources oriented to exchange processes between the subsystems of the social system. Starting with money, Parsons argues that the remaining media (power, influence, and value-commitments) have a set of characteristics defined as common properties for all media. After this first formulation, contemporary theorists such as Niklas Luhmann and Jurgen Habermas have developed and modified the Parsonian theory: Luhmann rejects the idea of interchange and proposes the use of communication; Habermas distinguishes between steering and communication media. In all three cases, the focus of the theory is on the characterization of the strongest dynamics of social co-ordination present in differentiated societies. A major result of these developments is the inclusion of new dimensions on which to conceive the properties of media, not only those of money but also language. Beyond differences, then, it is proposed that there is only one theory of generalized symbolic media which can be understood as a progressive research programme, in Lakatos’ terms. Finally, the hand-in-hand evolution between the theory of media and Habermas’ and Luhmann's re-conceptualizations on societal differentiation in contemporary societies will also be revealed.

Talcott Parsons: An Intellectual Biography

Abstract: 1. Understanding The Structure of Social Action 2. Parson's sociology of national socialism, 1938-45 3. The Harvard social science war effort and The Social System 4. A new agenda for citizenship: Parsons's theory and American society in the 1960s Epilogue: a life of scholarship for democracy.

The evolution of institutions in transition

Abstract: This paper aims at explaining the role and importance of the evolution of institutions for sustainable agri-environmental resources during the transition process by referring to examples of agri-environmental problem areas in Central and Eastern European Countries (CEECs). It is often stated that the mere replacement of institutional structures in post socialist countries by EU institutions would be an opportunity to implement rapidly new policies and institutions. However, not all kinds of institutions, especially at local level, can simply be implemented and certainly not instantly. Instead, they evolve as a response to ecosystem and social system characteristics, and this is a rather slow process, especially as people’s social networks and affiliations have dramatically changed since the socialist era. A central question, therefore, is whether the required institutional arrangements for achieving sustainability in the area of agri-environmental resource management can be built more easily in periods of transition as they fill institutional gaps, or whether processes of transition make institution building a far more difficult and time consuming task than previously thought. Above all, we want to find out how these two processes of institution building at different scales affect the sustainable management of resources such as water and biodiversity in agriculture? It will become clear that the nature of agri-environmental problems faced during transition is complex and dynamic and requires appropriate institutions both by political design and from the grassroots, to be developed by the respective actors involved. The process is supposed to lead from institutions in transition to institutions of sustainability. The transition from centrally planned to pluralistic systems has to be considered in some respect as a non-typical process of institutional change. Popular theories of institutional change do not necessarily apply.

Group and intergroup relations: conflict and cooperation

Abstract: Conflict and harmony exist in ail social systems. Systematic studies have shown that each has dynamics of its own; absence of conflict does not necessarily mean cooperation or harmony in the social organisation. During the World War II and after many social scientists researched on how conflict can be predicted and managed, and how cooperation can be developed. The work on group formation had provided valuable insights about the differences between behaviour of an individual and his behaviour as a member of a group. These studies also gave deeper understanding of how groups get formed and how they regulate their life. In the societal context it was necessary to understand how groups in their interactions with other groups develop conflict or result in cooperation. This paper reviews the findings of group formation and intergroup relations with special focus on how this knowledge is applied in the management of human processes in work organisations and in the wider society.

Exchange, action, and social structure : elements of economic sociology

Abstract: Introduction An Overview of Economic Sociology Applying a Sociological Approach to Economic Exchange Economic Exchange and Social Motivations The Political Structuration of Economic Exchange The Cultural Constitution of Economic Exchange The Institutional Organization of Labor Markets (Income Distribution) The Social Construction of Exchange (Business) Cycles Economic Exchange in Comparative Social Systems Exchange, Economic Development, and Social Variables Conclusion Bibliography

The Ecological Paradigm: Persons in Settings

Abstract: A central theme of community psychology is the idea that people live in a variety of social settings that influence their well-being. Any explanation of individual behavior without reference to these influential contexts is incomplete and may lead to misdirected efforts at social change. The term “Community Psychology” itself implies a junction of setting (“Community”) and individual (“Psychology”) processes. At the time it was founded, the concept of studying “persons within settings” was advanced as one that was central to the field. Inquiry and action should address social system structures as a means to attaining the goal of prevention of mental health disorders (Bennett et al.,1966, Chapter 5, this volume).

Conflicts in Social Theory and Multi-agent Systems

Abstract: This chapter seeks to give the reader an idea of how to import conflict conceptions from sociology into distributed AI (DAI). In a preliminary comparison of conflict research in DAI and sociology, we show that both disciplines talk about essentially the same issues when they refer to conflict, although there are important differences in their motivations and reasons for studying conflict. The main sections deal with conflict from the perspectives of two mainstreams of sociological thought: the theory of autopoietic social systems and the pragmatist theories of symbolic interaction. Following our attempt to derive useful conceptual insights from the two theoretical approaches and to identify potentialities for future interdisciplinary research, six interrelated themes are described which seem to be of particular promise for both DAI and sociology alike.

The discipline of information systems: issues and challenges

Abstract: This paper explores challenges of the evolution of the concept of Information Systems (IS) and its implications on IS as a discipline. The concept of IS has come a long way since the first ‘computer applications’ that automated routine, repetitive tasks, up until today’s organisation-wide IS, groupware systems and Internetbased IS that mediate communications. Gradually, IS have penetrated into all organisational processes and all aspects of organisational social life and inter-organisational relationships. As a result IS are coming to be considered as social systems, a component of the much wider domain of human language and social interaction. By addressing this dramatic shift from the first idea of the IS as a ’technical system’ to the idea of the IS as a ‘social system, technologically realised, the paper aims to contribute to the understanding of the emergence of the IS discipline.

The Dialectic of Bottom-up and Top-down Emergence in Social Systems

Abstract: In this paper we will present a theoretical explanation of the relationship between so-called individual emergence and the emergence of social systems. We want to take as our point of departure the assumption that from the perspective of hierarchical systems theory self-organization on the level of social systems includes a bottom-up process as well as a top-down process. The bottom-up process refers to what in sociology is called agency, the top-down process refers to what is called structure. We will show that it is convenient to suggest that these processes be linked in a dialectical manner. In this respect we will discuss problems of determinism and indeterminism. This is the background against which we will try to clarify the notion of individual emergence. Our rather general considerations will be illustrated by how ideology, that is consciousness in a collective as well as an individual sense, is conceived of by a number of theories and how it should be conceived of when aspects of self-organization are included. We will conclude with a statement that makes clear why consciousness is a property of individuals that emerges only when individuals participate in society and why society emerges only when individuals are endowed with consciousness.

Bringing "new science" into careers research

Abstract: This paper reflects on the first author’s attempts to adapt traditional social science methods to her own purpose. The research involved developing a methodology to explore the subjective career, concerned with people’s internal, self-referential views of their unfolding career experiences. The paper describes a series of problems encountered along the way, stemming directly or indirectly from the rigidity of traditional science assumptions. In contrast, the authors find encouragement in contemporary ideas about “new science, ” and its imagery of a self-organizing, non-linear and interdependent world. The journey leads to philosopher Paul Cilliers’ principles of complex social systems, which provide an alternative, and more affirming, platform for the kind of research undertaken.

Social Regulation of the Brain: Status, Sex, and Size

Abstract: Publisher Summary Among social animals, the behavior of one individual or of a group of individuals can strongly influence the behavior of other animals The nature of such influential interactions depends on the species, the situation, and the actual behavioral interaction The most reliable predictor of these encounters is the social status of the individuals involved For example, a dominant animal threatened by a nondominant animal behaves differently than does a dominant animal threatened by another dominant individual Similarly, behavior by a female produces quite different reactions in males depending on their social status It is fair to say that in every social system that has been observed, the behavior of individuals depends, in part, on their social status and, in part, on their physical environment This universal dependence of behavior on context is the primary scientific framework used to interpret behavior during social interactions

A Review of Foundation MSW Human Behavior Courses

Abstract: This research study reviewed the content and theoretical constructs of MSW human behavior foundation course outlines that were offered at 61 schools of social work during the 1998-1999 academic year. Results indicated that 70 percent of the schools of social work used a “life span,” “ecological perspective,” “bio-psychosocial,” or “social systems” approach as the primary theoretical focus. In comparison, only 20 percent of the schools focused on “diversity,” “vulnerable populations,” or “oppression” issues. Only three percent of the course outlines included a major theoretical focus on “disorder,” “dysfunctional behavior,” or “abnormal behavior.” With so much different content being offered in the Human Behavior and the Social Environment foundation sequence, it is evident that schools of social work and the social work profession need to rethink what human behavior content is essential for the practice of social work.

Public Policy and Diffusion of Innovation

Abstract: Marketers have traditionally studied diffusion of innovation with a primary focus on the individual consumer as a unit of analysis, the major types of findings being characteristics of adopter categories and opinion leadership. We propose that this perspective is not adequate from a macromarketing perspective, in which the goals are to set public policy for societal good or to create an environment which enables the diffusion of an innovation in a way that no single marketer could do alone. In setting public policy which can enable (or inhibit) diffusion of innovation for societal good, a system composed of a mass social infrastructure, a competitive infrastructure, and a technical infrastructure should be considered.

Developing the Selectionist Paradigm in Sociology

Abstract: This paper clarifies and develops some of the arguments put forward by W.G. Runciman in his 1998 Sociology article ‘The Selectionist Paradigm and Its Implications for Sociology’. It intends to supp...

Sociology of the Transcendental Delirium World

Abstract: The author analyses the individual-empire relationship in the Soviet Union. The literary work Moscow–Pietushki, by Venedikt Yerofeyev, is treated as a superb instantiation of Soviet interaction rituals. The author rejects the Homo sovieticus model, the orthodox implementation of which leads to a recognition of individuals as puppets of the system. The analysis, inspired by Goffman’s and Collins’ findings, shows the social mechanisms which make possible the construction of a temporary world of transcendental delirium, located on the borderline of system reality. The constitution and duration of this anti-utopia system inside society reveal the relative autonomy of Soviet social actors: their conduct within this world is conditioned mainly by the availability of alcohol and the capability to play the ‘parlour game’. Such analysis, which surveys the universal logic of interaction rituals, facilitates a reasonable comparison of the practices of Soviet actors with the practices of actors located on the ‘friendly’ peripheries of the system, and with the relevancy systems and the actions of the CEE and the Western bourgeoisie. Sociologický casopis/Czech Sociological Review, 2002, Vol. 38, No. 3: 297-309 Introductory Remarks The aim of this paper is to attempt to employ interaction theory in order to characterise and explain the individual–empire relationship. By ‘explanation’ I mean the disclosure of mechanisms that underlie the behaviour of social actors, and the construction and maintenance of interaction orders and social structures. Taking up a tentative attempt at such an explanation, I shall here be using the concrete example of the literary work Moscow–Pietushki, by Venedikt Yerofeyev [1994] (MP hereafter), which is situated in the historical realities of the period of the duration and transformations of the Soviet empire. I treat literary works as the products of the activities of social actors in relation to and within society. From my point of view they are social facts, just like other products and domains of social actors’ activities. In this sense, persistence in the thesis that literary descriptions are fictitious is heuristically fruitless. This thesis is as equally idle or fruitless as statements about the fictitiousness of expectations that a ‘full-blooded’ actor will have a date with a virtual cyber-beauty or will discuss theological issues with a living St. Thomas Aquinas. I agree with Thomas J. Scheff [1997: 157ff] that, for example, the world of Shakespearean drama reveals, in an unmatched way, tensions and conflicts, and shame and 297 * I would like to express my gratitude to Alina Szulzycka for her help in improving the English style of this paper and to Henryk Domanski, Janusz Gockowski, Hanna Świda-Ziemba for their com-

A Conceptual Model for Integrated Assessment

Abstract: The challenge of integrated assessment is the integration of scientific and social aspects for the preparation of decisions. On one hand it is necessary to find scientific and technologically sound solutions, on the other hand the results should meet the interests of social groups affected by the particular project. In large projects it is also necessary to consider the effects on sustainable development. The bandwidth of the different aspects is in practise confronted with problems in acquisition of data, inhomogeneity and incompleteness of information about the actual conditions and the effects of the project. To solve the task in a serious way it is necessary to reduce the uncertainties and to optimise between the physical possibilities and social interests. For these purposes a conceptual model was developed, and applied in several large infrastructure projects like motorway constructions, hydropower dams, and airport development. In this model the differences in temporal and spatial dynamics of physical environmental systems are considered by seven different partial systems. Based on the different characteristics of the partial systems it is possible to identify the basic properties of the existing physical system and the expected impacts of the project at a qualitative level. The results of these analyses are used for the definition of further detailed investigations and modelling needs for particular parts of the considered physical system. Differently to the physical system the social system is differentiated into eight rule systems. Because of the differences in the perception of the environment by different social groups, it is necessary to identify the actual status by appropriate methods. In this step of investigation it is essential to find out the different understandings of “reality” within the relevant social groups, so that it is possible to start necessary discussions among the groups and to present the results of physical investigations in a way which can be understood by the involved social groups. For the management of these processes it has to be clear, that there is a contradiction between the functional hierarchy of the physical environmental system and the perception or valuation within the social systems at temporal and spatial scales. So it is necessary to optimise between the outcomes of the investigations within the physical system and the outcomes of the social investigations, under consideration of the unavoidable uncertainties in both cases.

Globalization and the Evolution of Membership

Abstract: Nation states, families, ethnic groups, villages, and economic organizations — every collectivity — need to draw a line between what or whom is, or is not, permitted within it. Lacking the determination of such lines of discrimination, namely the production, reproduction and stabilization thereof, the collectivity disappears. Today. we find ourselves in a global world-system which has begun to show its own dynamic. It is a system without any center. It is not controlled by goals, norms or political directives, and its own dynamic is not focused within geopolitical borderlines or by the locality in general. In the following I sketch the deconstruction and reconstruction of borderlines and the emergence of new membership conditions within global settings in the context of the evolution of codes of membership. Also, one needs to mention an essential change in contemporary social sciences as a theoretical consequence of the analysis of the process of globalization. The subject of theorizing social process is not society as a regional or territorial marked unit, not the societas civilis, or like Parsons (1966, 9) has argued: “A society is a type of social system, in any universe of social systems, which attains the highest level of self-sufficiency as a system in relation to its environment.” The realm of the social are the inter-societal communication networks, that is world-systems as Chase-Dunn and Hall (1998) referred to it in the plural, which have restructured all local social structure (on the concept of world-systems, see Wallerstein 1998, Chase-Dunn and Hall 1998, Chase-Dunn 1999).