Showing papers on "Social system published in 2017"

The School Class as a Social System: Some of Its Functions in American Society *

Abstract: This chapter attempts to outline, if only sketchily, an analysis of the elementary and secondary school class as a social system, and the relation of its structure to its primary functions in the society as an agency of socialization and allocation. It is concerned with the line between college and non-college contingents; there is, however, another line between those who achieve solid non-college educational status and those for whom adaptation to educational expectations at any level is difficult. As the acceptable minimum of educational qualification rises, persons near and below the margin will tend to be pushed into an attitude of repudiation of these expectations. The chapter explains that an important part of the anti-intellectualism in American youth culture stems from the importance of the selective process through the educational system rather than the opposite. It maintains that what is internalized through the process of identification is a reciprocal pattern of role-relationships.

The neglect of society in the theory of the firm: a systems-theory perspective

Abstract: The prevailing theories of the firm acknowledge the importance of trust and loyalty but neglect such behaviour in the substance of their analyses. The present paper unravels this paradox by drawing on Niklas Luhmann’s ground-breaking insight that the complexity-reducing function of social systems leads them to neglect their critical environmental dependencies, thereby compromising their own sustainability. If the firm is conceived as a social system, Luhmann’s theory implies that the neglect of social behaviour by the predominant theories of the firm can be explained as reflecting the neglect of society by actual firms. This argument promises to not only furnish the theory of the firm with a concern for sustainability, but also render it more amenable to unconventional institutions, such as cooperatives and non-profit organisations, that help compensate for the damage inflicted by conventional firms on the social environment.

Social traits, social networks and evolutionary biology.

Abstract: The social environment is both an important agent of selection for most organisms, and an emergent property of their interactions. As an aggregation of interactions among members of a population, the social environment is a product of many sets of relationships and so can be represented as a network or matrix. Social network analysis in animals has focused on why these networks possess the structure they do, and whether individuals' network traits, representing some aspect of their social phenotype, relate to their fitness. Meanwhile, quantitative geneticists have demonstrated that traits expressed in a social context can depend on the phenotypes and genotypes of interacting partners, leading to influences of the social environment on the traits and fitness of individuals and the evolutionary trajectories of populations. Therefore, both fields are investigating similar topics, yet have arrived at these points relatively independently. We review how these approaches are diverged, and yet how they retain clear parallelism and so strong potential for complementarity. This demonstrates that, despite separate bodies of theory, advances in one might inform the other. Techniques in network analysis for quantifying social phenotypes, and for identifying community structure, should be useful for those studying the relationship between individual behaviour and group-level phenotypes. Entering social association matrices into quantitative genetic models may also reduce bias in heritability estimates, and allow the estimation of the influence of social connectedness on trait expression. Current methods for measuring natural selection in a social context explicitly account for the fact that a trait is not necessarily the property of a single individual, something the network approaches have not yet considered when relating network metrics to individual fitness. Harnessing evolutionary models that consider traits affected by genes in other individuals (i.e. indirect genetic effects) provides the potential to understand how entire networks of social interactions in populations influence phenotypes and predict how these traits may evolve. By theoretical integration of social network analysis and quantitative genetics, we hope to identify areas of compatibility and incompatibility and to direct research efforts towards the most promising areas. Continuing this synthesis could provide important insights into the evolution of traits expressed in a social context and the evolutionary consequences of complex and nuanced social phenotypes.

The empiricist’s challenge: Asking meaningful questions in political science in the age of big data

Abstract: The continuously growing use of digital services has provided social scientists with an expanding reservoir of data, potentially holding valuable insights into human behavior and social systems. This has often been associated with the terms “big data” and “computational social science.” Using such data, social scientists have argued, will enable us to better understand social, political, and economic life. Yet this new data type comes not only with promises but with challenges as well. These include developing standards for data collection, preparation, analysis, and reporting; establishing more systematic links between established theories within the existing body of research in the social sciences; and moving away from proofs-of-concepts toward the systematic development and testing of hypotheses. In this article, we map these promises and challenges in detail and introduce five highly innovative contributions collected in this special issue. These articles illustrate impressively the potential ...

On National Socialism

Abstract: During the years between the publication of the first of his two major works, "The Structure of Social Action "(1937), and the writing of his second, "The Social System "(1951), Talcott Parsons was primarily engaged in political activity through the Office of Strategic Services in its efforts to bring about the defeat of the Third Reich and to set the stage for a democratic reconstruction of postwar Germany. Beyond Parsons' analytic skills the essays reveal a dedicated liberal scholar, far removed from the stereotypes with which he came to be pilloried by later critics. The essays in this collection are the by-products of that special period of intense commitment. They reflect a single dominant theme: National Socialist Germany is seen as a tragically flawed social system but one requiring the same rigorous analysis Parsons brought to more normal and normative systems. Since virulent authoritarianism and even more virulent anti-Semitism were the dominant traits of that system as he saw it, Parsons dedicated many pages to each aspect. While he did not know the full horror of the Nazi "war against the Jews" he was able to develop a theoretical framework that continues to be a foundation stone for the analysis of national socialism. Gerhardt's editorial labors in the Parsons archive at Harvard have yielded nothing less than a "new book" by the foremost American sociological theorist of his time. This collection of both published and unpublished writings conveys Parsons' cohesive intent. To these otherwise fugitive and neglected essays Gerhardt contributes an introductory essay of her own: in part biography, in part intellectual and social history. She discovered Parsons work on National Socialism while studying his sociology of the professions and his use of medical practice to demonstrate how social science could become an antidote for fascism and authoritarianism. "Uta Gerhardt" is director of the Medical Sociology Unit at Justus Liebig University, Giessen. She has taught sociology at the Free University of Berlin, the University of Konstanz, the University of California at Berkeley, the San Francisco Medical School, the University of London, and the University of Wisconsin at Madison. The present volume comes out of her sabbatical year as Research Affiliate of the Minda de Gunzburg Center for European Studies, of Harvard University.

The Construction of Social Reality

Abstract: The frequency with which social scientists employ a term is taken as an indicator of its pragmatic utility, and then social reality would seem to be a very useful concept indeed. It is invoked not only in describing social influence processes, but also in explaining a variety of other forms of social behavior. T. J. Scheff takes a more concrete approach; his social reality is shared, but in an explicit dyadic situation. In the psychiatrist-patient relationship, for example, the psychiatrist rejects many of his patient's statements about the sources of his problems and accepts others. P. L. Berger and T. Luckmann offers perhaps the best single treatise on social reality. They provide considerable insight into the ways in which social reality emerges from habituation and becomes institutionalized into the social structure. A social system approach to the definition of social reality holds out the promise of describing the distribution of perspectives throughout a social system.

Putting context centre stage : evidence from a systems evaluation of an area based empowerment initiative in England.

Abstract: It is now widely accepted that context matters in evaluations of the health inequalities impact of community-based social initiatives. Systems thinking offers a lens for uncovering the dynamic relationship between such initiatives and their social contexts. However, there are very few examples that show how a systems approach can be applied in practice and what kinds of evidence are produced when this happens. In this paper, we use data from ethnographic fieldwork embedded within a multi-site mixed method evaluation to demonstrate how a systems approach can be applied in practice to evaluate the early stages of an area-based empowerment initiative – Big Local (funded by the Big Lottery Fund and delivered by Local Trust). Taking place in 150 different local areas in England and underpinned by an ethos of resident-led collective action, Big Local offers an illustration of the applicability of a systems approach to better understand the change processes that emerge as social initiatives embed and co-evolve within a series of local contexts. Findings reveal which parts of the social system are likely to be changed, by what mechanisms, and with what implications. They also raise some salient considerations for knowledge generation and methods development in public health evaluation, particularly for the evaluation of social initiatives where change does not necessarily happen in linear or predictable ways. We suggest future evaluations of such initiatives require the use of more flexible designs, encompassing qualitative approaches capable of capturing the complexity of relational systems processes, alongside more traditional quantitative methods.

Social Entrepreneurship and Tourism: Setting the Stage

Abstract: This chapter sets the conceptual foundation for the book. It provides a background on the development of thought around social entrepreneurship, and the scholars and organizations that have led to its development. After introducing various definitions of social entrepreneurship it then goes on to develop a definition of tourism social entrepreneurship (TSE). The terms ‘tourism social entrepreneur’ and ‘tourism social enterprise’ are also defined. An analysis of the current state of the tourism and hospitality industries and their market failures leads into a discussion of how TSE can transform the industry for the better. The chapter then describes how social entrepreneurship can effectively make changes to the economic and social systems that are no longer working in the world and in tourism. The status of tourism social entrepreneurship in industry, academia and education are then discussed. The final section of the chapter lays out the book’s contents, its three sections and the topics of each chapter.

What is Sustainable Theory? A Luhmannian Perspective on the Science of Conceptual Systems

Abstract: Sustainability is an important topic for understanding and developing our society (including business, government, and NGOs). For scholars who want their academic contributions to have an impact, sustainability is important for our conceptual systems (including theories, models, and policies). Because our conceptual systems share similarities with our social systems, we may investigate their characteristics to gain insight into how both may be achieved or at least understood. Theories of the humanities as well as the social/behavioral sciences are changing very rapidly. They are fragile and few seem to have any longevity. At the same time, the theoretical base does not seem to be “advancing.” They are not supporting highly effective results in the real world, so we continue to have seemingly insolvable problems such as crime, war, and poverty. This may be because academia has become inward-focused or, in Luhmann’s terminology, autonomous from the outside world. In seeking to understand how to develop more sustainable theories we found that the concept of sustainability is contested. And, in the process of comparing the sustainability of social systems to the sustainability of theories, we came to realize that neither perspective is viable. Drawing on Luhmann’s insights on the interdependence of theories and society, we came to realize that the two exist in a coevolutionary relationship. Importantly, we present an approach for measuring that evolution and suggest directions for accelerating the coevolutionary advance of society and science.

Examining horizontal and vertical social ties to achieve social–ecological fit in an emerging marine reserve network

Abstract: Most MPA networks are designed only with ecological processes in mind to increase their conservation utility. However, since MPA networks often involve large geographic areas, they also affect and involve multiple actors, institutions, and policy sectors. A key challenge when establishing an effective MPA network is to align the ‘social system’ with the biophysical MPA network (the ‘ecological system’). This challenge is often denoted as ‘social–ecological fit’. Facilitating collaborative social interactions among various actors and stakeholders (social connectivity) is equally as important as accomplishing ecological connectivity. New analytical approaches are required to effectively examine this ‘social’ dimension of fit. An emerging marine reserve network in Jamaica and the recent invasion of Indo-Pacific lionfish are used as a case study to: (1) examine the extent to which horizontal and vertical social ties bring local and national actors together to collaborate, coordinate, and share knowledge; and (2) assess the extent to which different attributes and features of such multilevel social networks may enhance or inhibit particular aspects of social–ecological fit. Findings suggest that multilevel linkages have played the greatest role in relation to enhancing fit in the marine reserve network in the context of the recent lionfish invasion. However, the long-term propensity of the multi-actor and multilevel networks to enhance social–ecological fit is uncertain given the prevalence of weak social ties, lack of a culture of information sharing and collaboration, and limited financial resources.

Influences on energy supply infrastructure: A comparison of different theoretical perspectives

Abstract: Changes to the energy supply infrastructure are a vital component of climate change mitigation strategies. But what exactly underlies changes to energy supply infrastructure? This paper, through exploration and critical analysis of relevant literature, explores the various underpinning influences on energy infrastructure supply using a comparison of different theoretical perspectives. These influences were explored with specific emphasis on techno-economics, social psychology, socio-technical transitions, social practices and institutional dimensions to energy supply. The aim was to have a better understanding of the (direct and indirect) role of politics and the political system in influencing energy supply infrastructure decisions through the various theoretical lenses. The study revealed that techno-economics uses financial instruments and market information as intervention tools. Its effectiveness is measured by social welfare and cost effectiveness. Social psychology uses a combination of information, incentives and innovative informative instruments as its intervention tools. Its effectiveness is measured by behavioural change. Institutions use regulatory instruments as its intervention tool. Its effectiveness is measured by regulatory compliance. Social practices look at change in broader social systems. Its effectiveness is measured by social change. Socio-technical transitions focus on determining social movements and social innovations. Its effectiveness is measured by legitimacy and social learning.

School Leadership, Social Justice and Immigration: Examining, Exploring and Extending Two Frameworks.

Abstract: Purpose The purpose of this paper is to explore theoretical connections between educational leadership for social justice and support for immigration. The authors seek to identify strengths, weaknesses and opportunities for further study and improved practice. Design/methodology/approach This is a theoretical research paper that introduces, evaluates and expands two frameworks for understanding leadership and immigration. Findings Findings suggested that there is a need for educational leadership scholars to more purposefully investigate issues related to social justice and immigration. Originality/value This study offers a novel theoretical perspective on leadership, social justice and immigration.

On the reflexivity of crises: lessons from critical theory and systems theory

Abstract: The main aim of this article is to offer a sociological concept of crisis that, defined as the expected yet non-lineal outcome of the internal dynamics of modern societies, builds on the synergies between critical theory and systems theory. It contends that, notwithstanding important differences, both traditions concur in addressing crises as a form of self-reproduction of social systems as much as a form of engagement with the complexities and effects of such processes of reproduction. In order to make our comparison exhaustive, this article explores critical and systems theories’ notions of crisis at three levels: (1) their conceptual delimitation of crises; (2) their methodological proposals to empirically observe crises; and (3) their normative attempts to contribute to their resolution. As crises remain a distinctive structural feature of the social world and a rich source of knowledge about it, reflexivity must be seen as a crucial form of engagement with the negative expressions of social life itself.

Social-ecological system resonance: a theoretical framework for brokering sustainable solutions

Abstract: Sustainability science is a solution-oriented discipline. Yet, there are few theory-rich discussions about how this orientation structures the efforts of sustainability science. We argue that Niklas Luhmann’s social system theory, which explains how societies communicate problems, conceptualize solutions, and identify pathways towards implementation of solutions, is valuable in explaining the general structure of sustainability science. From Luhmann, we focus on two key concepts. First, his notion of resonance offers us a way to account for how sustainability science has attended and responded to environmental risks. As a product of resonance, we reveal solution-oriented research as the strategic coordination of capacities, resources, and information. Second, Luhmann’s interests in self-organizing processes explain how sustainability science can simultaneously advance multiple innovations. The value logic that supports this multiplicity of self-organizing activities as a recognition that human and natural systems are complex coupled and mutually influencing. To give form to this theoretical framework, we offer case evidence of renewable energy policy formation in Texas. Although the state’s wealth is rooted in a fossil-fuel heritage, Texas generates more electricity from wind than any US state. It is politically antagonistic towards climate-change policy, yet the state’s reception of wind energy technology illustrates how social and environmental systems can be strategically aligned to generate solutions that address diverse needs simultaneously. This case demonstrates that isolating climate change—as politicians do as a separate and discrete problem—is incapable of achieving sustainable solutions, and resonance offers researchers a framework for conceptualizing, designing, and communicating meaningfully integrated actions.

A Limit to Our Thinking and Some Unanticipated Moral Consequences: A Science of Conceptual Systems Perspective with Some Potential Solutions

Abstract: One paradox of modern society is the widespread use of highly complex mechanisms of economic and social self-regulation which produce a large number of unintended and often undesirable side-effects. Human conceptual systems (theories, policies, and mental models which support our thinking) are good enough to keep the self-regulatory mechanisms in operation; yet they are not good enough to prevent and control the undesirable contingencies. Systems thinking, and complexity science are growing in their usefulness for understanding our social systems as well as our conceptual systems. The present paper examines and explains this paradox by combining the ideas from the burgeoning science of conceptual systems and Niklas Luhmann’s social systems theory. Drawing on Luhmann’s argument that social systems build up their internal complexity by disregarding the complexity of the environment, we propose to differentiate between those conceptual systems that reflect the intra-systemic complexity of simpler systems and those that reflect the intra-systemic complexity of sub-systems in combination with systems of systems to include the environmental complexity. Thus it comes about that the former conceptual systems, exemplified by physics, are much more effective and successful than the latter ones, often corresponding to social sciences. The chasm between the qualities of these systems can be overcome by using the tools of Integrative Propositional Analysis.

The unintended consequences of financialisation: Social democracy hamstrung? The pensions dilemma

Abstract: At the end of the Third Way and no sense of its future, social democrats look to Sweden for inspiration. However, Swedish social democracy is in no better condition. Scholarship is starting to grasp the broad outlines of the movement’s difficulties. Providing greater depth, this article employs the Social Systems of Innovation and Production approach to analyse Swedish social democracy’s current condition by historicising its current policy dilemmas in relation to the public pension system, once the jewel in the crown of the Rehn–Meidner model and the push for economic and industrial democracy, now the constraining legacy of financialisation.

Designing for Aesthetic Disruption : Altering Mental Models in Social Systems through Designerly Practices

Abstract: Amid all the excitement about transforming social systems through design, there remains a lack of understanding about what design can uniquely offer to support this change. This conceptual paper co ...

Electronic Social Capital for Self-Organising Multi-Agent Systems

Abstract: It is a recurring requirement in open systems, such as networks, distributed systems, and socio-technical systems, that a group of agents must coordinate their behaviour for the common good. In those systems—where agents are heterogeneous—unexpected behaviour can occur due to errors or malice. Agents whose practices free-ride the system can be accepted to a certain level; however, not only do they put the stability of the system at risk, but they also compromise the agents that behave according to the system’s rules.In social systems, it has been observed that social capital is an attribute of individuals that enhances their ability to solve collective action problems. Sociologists have studied collective action through human societies and observed that social capital plays an important role in maintaining communities though time as well as in simplifying the decision-making in them. In this work, we explore the use of Electronic Social Capital for optimising self-organised collective action.We developed a context-independent Electronic Social Capital framework to test this hypothesis. The framework comprises a set of handlers that capture events from the system and update three different forms of social capital: trustworthiness, networks, and institutions. Later, a set of metrics are generated by the forms of social capital and used for decision-making. The framework was tested in different scenarios such as two-player games, n-player games, and public goods games. The experimental results show that social capital optimises the outcomes (in terms of long-term satisfaction and utility), reduces the complexity of decision-making, and scales with the size of the population.This work proposes an alternative solution using Electronic Social Capital to represent and reason with qualitative, instead of traditional quantitative, values. This solution could be embedded into socio-technical systems to incentivise collective action without commodifying the resources or actions in the system.

Interplay between Public Attention and Public Emotion toward Multiple Social Issues on Twitter

Abstract: This study aims to elucidate the intricate interplay between public attention and public emotion toward multiple social issues. A theoretical framework is developed based on three perspectives including endogenous affect hypothesis, affect transfer hypothesis, and affective intelligence theory. Large-scale longitudinal data with 265 million tweets on five social issues are analyzed using a time series analytical approach. Public attention on social issues can influence public emotion on the issue per se. Social issues interact with one another to attract public attention in both cooperative and competitive ways. Instead of a direct transfer from public emotion to public attention, the public emotion toward a social issue moderates the interaction between the issue and other issue(s).

Shared values and socio-cultural norms: E-learning technologies from a social practice perspective

Abstract: From a perspective of social practice, learning is a socially constituted practice that is imbued with socio-culturally significant meanings and shaped by the values and norms shared within a community of learners. This focus group study examines the role of e-learning technologies in mediating the social practice of learning among coursework university students in Sydney, Australia. Qualitative data from this study elucidated the social context and significant socio-cultural meanings that make learning technologies highly valued tools for students. Notably, students valued the interaction with others facilitated by learning technologies that enable the sharing and building of knowledge, because learning is most effective and engaging through community participation. Further, they articulated a desire for learning opportunities that are instantaneous, convenient and time-saving, against the backdrop of a busy and time-poor metropolitan lifestyle that requires the balancing of study with extracurricular activities and long commutes. Learning technologies are key enablers in a social structure that readily engage individuals into the social system of learning. It is crucial that the design and implementation of e-learning is situated in an understanding of learning as a social practice and tailored to the significant values and norms associated with education and learning activities among its learners.

Toward a Theory of Emergence: The Role of Social Influence in Emergent Self-Organisation

Abstract: The creation of perpetual novelty has long puzzled organisational theorists, scientists and philosophers. Over the last 100 years, numerous strands of inquiry have woven together to form a superstructure of ideas, concepts and principles known as complexity theory, to understand the spontaneous emergence or order. The study of complex systems has given rise to many empirical advances, including a deeper understanding of time, evolution, and the organisation of living systems. Despite being surrounded by complexity, the real-world application in organisational theory appears to have gained only few of its potential benefits. Furthermore, prior studies have failed to produce a theory for emergent self-organisation, its anchor-point phenomenon. After many years of direct theory to phenomena translations, this study reveals their tenuous link to root theory and numerous gaps in the existing body of knowledge to translate central ideas of complexity to applied social science. In organisations faced with considerable uncertainty and responsibility for the control of immense resources, it is surprising to find an emergent, iterative approach is ingrained within key strategic activities. In an uncertain global climate, a better understanding of the capacity to adapt without explicit plans or centralised coordination could not be more timely or important. Human social systems and the mechanics of their organisation is one of the most pervasive topics of applied social science, leadership and management, and has relevance to almost all economic, political and social research that concerns dynamic interaction between people. Drawing on pragmatic foundations, this study explores how complex organisations adapt through emergent self-organisation, with a focus on the role of social influence between agents. The study argues that social influence is a principal mechanism for energetic transfer in complex human social systems. The study examines two primary research questions, concerning: the function, and process of emergence in human social systems. Furthermore, the role emergence plays in adapting to new or acute pressures, and the general process for such a mechanism. An interview driven, multiple case study approach is used to observe the interactions and behaviours of agents within complex systems. Data collection and analysis is without parallel in both cases, comprised of 47 interviews and over 3.2 million transcribed words. Case one focuses on the operation of Wivenhoe Dam during the Brisbane Floods Crisis of 2011, Case two examines the actions of seven investment firms at the epicentre of the Subprime Mortgage Crisis in late 2008. The case study approach has yielded rich analysis and findings, applicable to similar firms in times of turbulence. Findings reveal a distinctly emergent process of decision making in structured organisations, and a surprising method of post hoc strategy labelling, where structural inertia has perverse impacts on risk intensification, irreversibility and the amplification of small change. Analysis extrapolates the mechanics of amplification associated with the use of structured investment products, collateralisation and bundling of risky assets, generating increased risk velocity and the erosion of strategic choice. Findings deliver a practical application of downward causation, and many recursive theoretical developments, with regard to autonomy, information coupling, sustainability and immunity of emergent, self-organising forms and the role of information and people in groups. Findings shed a number of new insights into the anatomy of crisis that unfolded in both cases, and areas for potential improvement in the practical application of theory and research outcomes. Over 40 unique contributions to the body of knowledge are noted. The findings of this study have several important implications, to aid a more comprehensive understanding of the latent potential for emergent self-organisation in human social organisation. The study develops and proposes further sophistication and robustness in methods to continue research into complex phenomena within the field of applied social science research. The study explores warning signals, systemic risk factors, and their relationship to leadership, management and corporate strategy. While the findings of this study contribute to the body of knowledge, further research is proposed through a research extension agenda. Following the extensive review of literature and presentation of findings, the study concludes a theory of emergence is in a nascent state, and is not yet fully developed, refined or tested. This study makes a contribution toward a theory of emergence, in particular to better understand the function and process of influence in complex human social systems.