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Showing papers on "Stand-alone power system published in 2004"


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this article, power electronics, the technology of efficiently processing electric power, play an essential part in the integration of the dispersed generation units for good efficiency and high performance of the power systems.
Abstract: The global electrical energy consumption is rising and there is a steady increase of the demand on the power capacity, efficient production, distribution and utilization of energy. The traditional power systems are changing globally, a large number of dispersed generation (DG) units, including both renewable and nonrenewable energy sources such as wind turbines, photovoltaic (PV) generators, fuel cells, small hydro, wave generators, and gas/steam powered combined heat and power stations, are being integrated into power systems at the distribution level. Power electronics, the technology of efficiently processing electric power, play an essential part in the integration of the dispersed generation units for good efficiency and high performance of the power systems. This paper reviews the applications of power electronics in the integration of DG units, in particular, wind power, fuel cells and PV generators.

2,296 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this article, a simple probabilistic method has been developed to predict the ability of energy storage to increase the penetration of intermittent embedded renewable generation (ERG) on weak electricity grids and to enhance the value of the electricity generated by time-shifting delivery to the network.
Abstract: A simple probabilistic method has been developed to predict the ability of energy storage to increase the penetration of intermittent embedded renewable generation (ERG) on weak electricity grids and to enhance the value of the electricity generated by time-shifting delivery to the network. This paper focuses on the connection of wind generators at locations where the level of ERG would be limited by the voltage rise. Short-term storage, covering less than 1 h, offers only a small increase in the amount of electricity that can be absorbed by the network. Storage over periods of up to one day delivers greater energy benefits, but is significantly more expensive. Different feasible electricity storage technologies are compared for their operational suitability over different time scales. The value of storage in relation to power rating and energy capacity has been investigated so as to facilitate appropriate sizing.

1,328 citations


Book
29 Nov 2004
TL;DR: In this article, the authors present a power system design process and trade process for photovoltaic-battery systems in a near-Earth space environment, including solar array battery, electric propulsion, fuel cell, and flywheel.
Abstract: POWER SYSTEM FUNDAMENTALS Satellite Overview Near-Earth Space Environment Power System Options Photovoltaic-Battery System Environmental Effects Power System Requirements Design Process and Trades PV-BATTERY SYSTEM Solar Array Battery Power Electronics and Magnetics Distribution Harness and Protection Ancillary Components POWER SYSTEM PERFORMANCE Energy Balance and Power Management Dynamic Performance and Stability Electromagnetic Interference and Compatibility Electrostatic Discharge Reliability and Derating Integration and Testing SPECIAL POWER SYSTEMS Interplanetary and Deep-Space Missions Radioisotope Thermoelectric Generator Dynamic Systems with Alternator High-Power High-Voltage Systems Electric Propulsion Fuel Cell Power Flywheel Energy Storage Superconductors in Space Microwave Beam Power Satellite

238 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
01 Nov 2004
TL;DR: In this article, the authors presented an analysis of the combined cycle operation of a solid oxide fuel cell (SOFC)-microturbine and a strategy for combining the thermophotovoltaic power generation unit and SOFC to obtain the hybrid power system that would have higher efficiency.
Abstract: A hybrid power system consists of a combination of two or more power generation technologies to make best use of their operating characteristics and to obtain efficiencies higher than that could be obtained from a single power source. Since fuel cells directly convert fuel and an oxidant into electricity through an electrochemical process, they produce very low emissions and have higher operating efficiencies. Hence, combining fuel cells with other sources, the efficiency of the combined system can be further increased or extend the duration of the available power to the load as a backup power. In this paper, different types of fuel-cell hybrid systems and their applications are presented. An analysis of the combined cycle operation of a solid oxide fuel cell (SOFC)-microturbine is presented. A strategy for combining the thermophotovoltaic power generation unit and SOFC to obtain the hybrid power system that would have higher efficiency is proposed. The hybrid operation of wind power and solar power system with proton exchange membrane fuel cell is also presented.

218 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this article, a localized competitive market for reactive power ancillary services at the level of individual voltage control areas is proposed, where uniform prices for various components of reactive power service are obtained for each voltage-control area.
Abstract: In this paper, we present the design of a localized competitive market for reactive power ancillary services at the level of individual voltage-control areas. The concept of electrical distance has been used to identify the different voltage-control areas within a power system. The proposed reactive power market is settled on uniform price auction, using a modified optimal power-flow model. Uniform prices for various components of reactive power service are obtained for each voltage-control area. In the study cases described in the paper, we examine whether such a localized reactive power market is more desirable than a common system-wide reactive power market.

215 citations


17 Dec 2004
TL;DR: In this paper, the impact of large amounts of wind power on the Nordic electricity system is investigated, and the reserve requirement for the system, due to wind power, is determined by combining the variations with varying electricity consumption.
Abstract: This thesis studies the impact of large amounts of wind power on the Nordic electricity system. The impact on both the technical operation of the power system and the electricity market are investigated. The variability of wind power is reduced when looking at a large interconnected system with geographically dispersed wind power production. In the Nordic countries, the aggregated wind power production will stay between 1–90 % of the installed capacity and the hourly step changes will be within ±5 % of the installed capacity for most of the time. The reserve requirement for the system, due to wind power, is determined by combining the variations with varying electricity consumption. The increase in reserve requirement is mostly seen on the 15 minutes to 1 hour time scale. The operating reserves in the Nordic countries should be increased by an amount corresponding to about 2 % of wind power capacity when wind power produces 10 % of yearly gross demand. The increased cost of regulation is of the order of 1 €/MWh at 10 % penetration and 2 €/MWh at 20 % penetration. This cost is halved if the investment costs for new reserve capacity are omitted and only the increased use of reserves is taken into account. In addition, prediction errors in wind power day ahead will appear in the regulating power market to an extent which depends on how much they affect the system net balance and how much the balance responsible players will correct the deviations before the actual operating hour. Simulations of increasing wind power in the Nordic electricity system show that wind power would mainly replace coal fired production and increase transmission between the areas within the Nordic countries and from Nordic countries to Central Europe. The CO2 emissions decrease from an initial 700 gCO2/kWh to 620 gCO2/kWh at 12 % penetration. High penetrations of wind power will lower the Nordpool spot market prices by about 2 €/MWh per 10 TWh/a added wind production (10 TWh/a is 3 % of gross demand).

181 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this article, an isolated hybrid scheme employing a simple three-phase squarewave inverter to integrate a photovoltaic array with a wind-driven induction generator has been proposed for the first time.
Abstract: Isolated renewable energy systems based on hybrid wind-solar sources are considered as feasible and reliable options instead of wind-diesel systems. An isolated hybrid scheme employing a simple three-phase square-wave inverter to integrate a photovoltaic array with a wind-driven induction generator has been proposed for the first time. A dynamic mathematical model of the hybrid scheme with variables expressed in d-q synchronous reference frame has been developed. The model is implemented in the power system blockset platform and a comparison has been made between transients simulated and transients obtained in an experimental prototype. Close agreement between experimental and the simulated waveforms has been observed, which validates the model.

172 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this article, the authors examined the economics of producing electricity from proton exchange membrane (PEM) fuel cell systems under various conditions, including the possibility of using fuel cell vehicles (FCVs) to produce power when they are parked at office buildings and residences.

142 citations


Proceedings ArticleDOI
06 Jun 2004
TL;DR: In this article, the relative merits of adopting different system operational approaches on a system with significant wind power capacity are assessed and the implications are discussed, showing that an operational approach which incorporates wind forecast information, while considering an increased need for reserve due to wind power, results in a more efficient integration of the wind capacity.
Abstract: With increasing levels of wind generation capacity on electricity systems, system operators will need to adapt their system operation policy to facilitate the efficient and cost effective integration of wind power. This paper illustrate the relative merits of adopting different system operational approaches on a system with significant wind power capacity. The impact on conventional generation, reserve levels and emissions are assessed and the implications are discussed. The illustrations show that an operational approach, which incorporates wind forecast information, while considering an increased need for reserve due to wind power, results in a more efficient integration of the wind capacity.

134 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors look at the costs of the hydrogen option both in the near-term and the long-term relative to the current costs of electricity and natural gas supplies.

131 citations


ReportDOI
01 Dec 2004
TL;DR: In this article, a high level, technology-neutral framework for assessing potential benefits from and economic market potential for energy storage used for electric utility-related applications is presented, with a focus on the use of electricity storage to support and optimize transmission and distribution services.
Abstract: This Guide describes a high level, technology-neutral framework for assessing potential benefits from and economic market potential for energy storage used for electric utility-related applications. In the United States use of electricity storage to support and optimize transmission and distribution (T&D) services has been limited due to high storage system cost and by limited experience with storage system design and operation. Recent improvement of energy storage and power electronics technologies, coupled with changes in the electricity marketplace, indicate an era of expanding opportunity for electricity storage as a cost-effective electric resource. Some recent developments (in no particular order) that drive the opportunity include: (1) states adoption of the renewables portfolio standard (RPS), which may increased use of renewable generation with intermittent output, (2) financial risk leading to limited investment in new transmission capacity, coupled with increasing congestion on some transmission lines, (3) regional peaking generation capacity constraints, and (4) increasing emphasis on locational marginal pricing (LMP).

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this paper, the feasibility of hydrogen production via electrolysis using wind power that cannot be easily accommodated on the system was investigated, and the potential benefits of hydrogen and its role in enabling a large penetration of wind energy were assessed.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this article, the authors present the experimental results of an actively controlled fuel cell/battery hybrid power source topology that can be widely used in many applications, such as portable electronic devices, communication equipment, spacecraft power systems, and electric vehicles.

Proceedings ArticleDOI
28 Jul 2004
TL;DR: In this article, the authors reviewed recent developments in anti-islanding techniques for distributed resources interconnected with electric power systems and classified the techniques as remote and local, and further classified them as passive and active.
Abstract: The aim of this paper is to review recent developments in anti-islanding techniques for distributed resources interconnected with electric power systems. The techniques may be classified as remote and local. Remote techniques are associated with island detection on the utility side while local techniques are associated with island detection on the distributed power generation side. Local techniques may further be classified as passive and active.

Patent
11 Mar 2004
TL;DR: In this article, a hybrid clean-energy power-supply framework integrates a fuel cell, solar cell, and wind energy, applies a max power tracking rule, raises the output power of a solar cell to supply a power load and transfer the surplus electrical energy to a water-electrolyzing apparatus for producing hydrogen and oxygen, and provides a fuel for a fuel-cell power generating system.
Abstract: A hybrid clean-energy power-supply framework integrates a fuel cell, solar cell, and wind energy, applies a max power tracking rule, raises the output power of a solar cell and wind energy to supply a power load and transfer the surplus electrical energy to a water-electrolyzing apparatus for producing hydrogen and oxygen, and provides a fuel for a fuel cell power generating system. Furthermore, the present invention utilizes features of each clean-energy power generating system, depends on the powerful calculation capacity of a central processing unit to monitor and dispatch each power generation and supply system, and thus ensures the reliability of supply power and reduces the power generation cost. Such a framework can selectively grid-connect with the utility power or run as a stand-alone power supply system and has a mechanism for preventing the island effect.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this paper, a critical analysis of all the major pathways to produce hydrogen and to utilize it as an energy carrier to generate heat or electricity is presented, and the approach taken is to make a cradle-to-grave analysis including the production of hydrogen, the conversion of hydrogen to heat and finally the utilization of that heat and electricity for a useful purpose. But, it is shown that no currently available hydrogen pathway, irrespective of whether it uses fossil fuels, nuclear fuels, or renewable technology as the primary energy source to generate electricity or heat is as efficient as using the electric power
Abstract: This article presents a critical analysis of all the major pathways to produce hydrogen and to utilize it as an energy carrier to generate heat or electricity. The approach taken is to make a cradle to grave analysis including the production of hydrogen, the conversion of hydrogen to heat or electricity and finally the utilization of that heat or electricity for a useful purpose. This methodology shows that no currently available hydrogen pathway, irrespective of whether it uses fossil fuels, nuclear fuels, or renewable technology as the primary energy source to generate electricity or heat is as efficient as using the electric power or heat from any of these sources directly. Furthermore, electric vehicles using batteries to store electricity are shown to be more efficient and less polluting than fuel cell powered vehicles using energy stored in hydrogen.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: The challenges of photovoltaic in restructured power systems are shown and PV technologies could provide more secure mode of operation for power system during peak load hours when the systems are constrained and locational marginal prices are high.
Abstract: In response to global issues for the generation and delivery of electrical power, photovoltaic (PV) and other renewable energy technologies are gaining acceptance as a way of maintaining and improving living standards without harming the environment PV could help mitigate energy crises by reducing peak demand and securing the delivery of power in congested locations by decentralizing the power generation This article shows the challenges of photovoltaic in restructured power systems PV technologies could provide more secure mode of operation for power system during peak load hours when the systems are constrained and locational marginal prices are high

Patent
16 Mar 2004
TL;DR: In this article, a combination of electrothermal energy storage and combustion of (fossil) fuels as an auxiliary heat source provides for a cost efficient system for storing energy and an economical way of generating electricity.
Abstract: Because the efficiency of the thermal energy storage technology is inherently restricted, its beneficial use is limited to very particular economic boundary conditions, i.e. a large difference between the value of electricity going into the unit and the value of electricity coming out of the unit. With the reduction in wind power equipment prices and the cost of fossil fuels and/or their combustion products this is occasionally the case for wind power. Wind is a free fuel and the value of wind power when there is too little load demand is essentially zero, and the value of wind power when there is demand is considerable indeed. Under these circumstances, a combination of electrothermal energy storage and combustion of (fossil) fuels as an auxiliary heat source provides for a cost efficient system for storing energy and an economical way of generating electricity.

Patent
Kazuyoshi Obayashi1, Keisuke Tani1
24 Feb 2004
TL;DR: In this article, the power sources for supplying power to charge an onboard battery are determined based on difference between the power generation cost of each power source and that for generating an amount of power charged in the battery.
Abstract: A method for controlling a vehicular electric system having multiple power sources including an engine-driven generator. The power sources for supplying power to charge an onboard battery are determined based on difference between the power generation cost of each power source and that for generating an amount of power charged in the battery. Furthermore, amounts power to be supplied to the battery 103 for charge is determined based on the amount of power currently charged in the battery.

Proceedings ArticleDOI
05 Jan 2004
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors investigated the relationship between wind farms, energy storage, reactive power compensation, and the power system network and showed how the contribution of wind farms affects the power distribution network.
Abstract: The size of wind farm power systems is increasing, and so is the number of wind farms contributing to the power systems network. The size of wind turbines is also increasing— from less than 1 MW a few years ago to the 2- to 3-MW machines being installed today and the 5-MW machines under development. The interaction of the wind farm, energy storage, reactive power compensation, and the power system network is being investigated. Because the loads and the wind farms' output fluctuate during the day, the use of energy storage and reactive power compensation is ideal for the power system network. Energy storage and reactive power compensation can minimize real/reactive power imbalances that can affect the surrounding power system. In this paper, we will show how the contribution of wind farms affects the power distribution network and how the power distribution network, energy storage, and reactive power compensation interact when the wind changes. We will also investigate the size of the components in relation to each other and to the power system. HE Tehachapi, California area is home to one of the best wind resource areas in the country, and the culture of wind generation is rooted deeply in the hearts of the locals. As wind power generation in the area continues to expand, reactive power compensation and energy storage will be required. A reactive power compensator is a very important aspect of wind generation in the Tehachapi wind farms. Most of the wind turbines currently operating in the area are induction generator wind turbines (constant frequency). An induction generator requires reactive power to be supplied from the grid. It is therefore necessary to provide reactive power locally, as close as possible to the demand levels. In the early days of wind farm development, the wind farm operators were required to compensate each wind turbine with the reactive power needed when the wind turbine was operating at no-load. However, an induction generator requires an increasing amount of reactive power as the amount of power generated increases. Without proper compensation, the voltage at the point of injection (where the majority of the wind farm output is injected) will vary as the wind speed varies during the day. In this paper, the concept of compensating reactive power will be explored. Both the fixed and adjustable compensation will be used to maintain the voltage as close as possible to the acceptable limit. More detailed information on reactive power compensation can be found in references (1-2). In the past, energy from the wind was transmitted directly to the grid at the time it was generated. The electricity generated is sold at a fixed price based on the contract between the operator and the utility. The deregulation in the utility industry enables the utility to buy the best price from the lowest bid. The cost of energy depends on the availability of the electric energy in the pool. Southern California Edison (SCE) is required to purchase energy from the wind park developers because they are Qualifying Facilities (QF's) under the Public Utility Regulatory Policies Act (PURPA) rules. Rates are established based on the "avoided cost" of generation from other sources. With the incentive of selling the electricity at the highest price, wind farm operators seek new ways to deploy power generated by wind turbines at the right time. However, the variability of the wind speeds during the day and seasons affects the cost-effectiveness of wind energy. To allow electric generation on demand, we need sufficient electric energy storage to enable the wind farm to generate on demand. Large-scale energy storage for power system applications has been investigated for many years for peak shaving, load-frequency control, and many other uses (3- 4).

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this article, the importance of a short-term wind power-prediction tool for the participation of wind energy systems in electricity markets is studied, and it is concluded that income from participation in the electricity markets can be increased using a short term wind power prediction tool of average accuracy.
Abstract: One of the characteristics of wind energy, from the grid point of view, is its non-dispatchability, i.e. generation cannot be ordered, hence integration in electrical networks may be difficult. Short-term wind power prediction-tools could make this integration easier, either by their use by the grid System Operator, or by promoting the participation of wind farms in the electricity markets and using prediction tools to make their bids in the market. In this paper, the importance of a short-term wind power-prediction tool for the participation of wind energy systems in electricity markets is studied. Simulations, according to the current Spanish market rules, have been performed to the production of different wind farms, with different degrees of accuracy in the prediction tool. It may be concluded that income from participation in electricity markets is increased using a short-term wind power prediction-tool of average accuracy. This both marginally increases income and also reduces the impact on system o...

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this paper, the minimum amount of reactive power (Q/sub min/) required for a given generator to transmit its own active power to support a real-life power system is determined.
Abstract: Reactive power is an important system support service in the current power market. Power producers or generators have the opportunity to offer this service to make a profit. Given the fact that a generator needs reactive power to transmit its own active power, however, it is possible that certain generators cannot support a system even if they are generating reactive power. This paper investigates such a phenomenon and proposes a method to determine the minimum amount of reactive power (Q/sub min/) required for a given generator. If a generator cannot supply this minimum amount, it actually draws reactive power support from the system to facilitate its own active power selling activity. Compensation to a generator's reactive power output should be made only to the amount that is above the Q/sub min/ amount. The proposed ideas are illustrated with simple systems in this paper and tested on a real-life power system. The test results verified the validity of the proposed concept and method.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this paper, a structure preserving energy margin (EM) sensitivity-based analysis is presented to determine the amount of preventive generation rescheduling to stabilize a transiently unstable power system, which is applicable to detailed model of power systems.
Abstract: In this paper, a structure preserving energy margin (EM) sensitivity-based analysis is presented to determine the amount of preventive generation rescheduling to stabilize a transiently unstable power system. An expression using a simplified model is derived to relate the change in the EM to change in generation. Utilising this expression, two approaches for generation rescheduling are developed which are applicable to detailed model of power systems. The proposed methods are applied to the 10-machine New England power system and 16-machine power system with detailed power system models.

Patent
08 Dec 2004
TL;DR: In this article, a hub supplying power actively includes an active power supply device having a battery charger, a storage battery, a DC/DC converter, and a control circuit, which is connected to a USB of a computer to receive direct current (DC) of the USB.
Abstract: A hub supplying power actively includes an active power supply device having a battery charger, a storage battery, a DC/DC converter, and a control circuit. The hub is connected to a USB of a computer to receive direct current (DC) of the USB. When power demand of the hub is lower than the DC power supply of the USB, the power is supplied by the USB and the storage battery is charged via the battery charger simultaneously. When power demand of the hub is higher than the DC power supply of the USB, the storage battery discharges electricity and supplies power after conversion by the DC/DC converter. When the hub is disconnected to the computer, a power adapter is connected externally to rectify mains electricity and to charge battery. The charged battery outputs the power to supply for the connected peripheral equipment after converting the electricity into direct current.

Proceedings ArticleDOI
10 Oct 2004
TL;DR: In this article, the integration and modelling of combined cycle gas turbines (CCGT), and wind turbine generator (WTG) technology on a small islanded power system is discussed. But the authors focus on the reliability of the power supply.
Abstract: Frequency stability has not necessarily been a major problem for the majority of power systems in the past. However, for economic and environmental reasons, power systems are now operated closer to stability limits to maximise the use of the existing networks. Therefore, introduction of new, more efficient and renewable generation technologies, and their effect on the power system must be fully understood if a reliable and secure electricity supply is to be maintained. Using the Northern Ireland, and interconnected Republic of Ireland electricity networks as a case study, this paper addresses some of the issues regarding integration and modelling of combined cycle gas turbines (CCGT), and wind turbine generator (WTG) technology on a small islanded power system.

Proceedings Article
01 Jan 2004
TL;DR: In this article, an optimization approach is proposed to determine the most probable range of the output production, to be used in the definition of production profiles that will help the participation of wind power in the market.
Abstract: In the usual operation, wind park production is strongly dependent on the instantaneously available wind power. When energy storage is accessible, the wind park operation can be improved, aiming to a better exploitation of the available wind power resource. The present work proposes an optimization approach to determinate the most probable range of the output production, to be used in the definition of production profiles that will help the participation of wind power in the market. Two production profiles strategies were analyzed and compared. The forecasted wind power is represented as a stochastic variable and real wind power Portuguese conditions have been used in the evaluation of the model.

Proceedings ArticleDOI
15 Sep 2004
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors developed a model that minimizes the non-technical electrical energy losses of an electrical distribution network and used this model as a base for developing a strategy to reduce the electrical energy loss of an electricity distribution network.
Abstract: A focus area of energy management research is the reduction of electrical energy losses occurring in an electricity distribution network. These losses are the technical and nontechnical losses. Reducing these losses ensure that the cost of electricity to customers will be reduced and in turn the efficiency of the distribution network will be improved. The model developed minimizes the nontechnical electrical energy losses of an electrical distribution network. This model simulates the electrical distribution network and includes different parameters that calculate the estimated technical losses of the electricity distribution network. The model is used as a base for developing a strategy that minimizes the electrical energy losses of an electrical distribution network.

Proceedings Article
01 Jan 2004
TL;DR: In this article, a two-bridge type of power electronic system for interfacing an energy storage system that can provide the short-term power balance and smoothes the power variation is presented.
Abstract: The paper discusses a bidirectional DC/DC converter for interfacing an energy storage device in an autonomous power system, which consists of wind turbines and diesel generation units. The operation condition variations, such as switching load, could cause significant dynamics in an autonomous system. An energy storage device can effectively increase the utilization of the renewable energy and improve the capability of dealing with dynamics. This paper studies a two-bridge type of power electronic system for interfacing an energy storage system that can provide the short-term power balance and smoothes the power variation. A control strategy is presented. The simulation results have demonstrated that the system can provide fast response to secure the system reliability and power quality

Patent
04 Nov 2004
TL;DR: In this article, the authors provided an electricity grid, system having a substation connecting two grid parts, preferably at different levels in the grid hierarchy, wherein flow control means is provided for controlling the flow of electricity between the two parts in dependence on the level of stress of the respective grid part of the network.
Abstract: There is provided an electricity grid, system having a substation connecting two grid parts, preferably at different levels in the grid hierarchy, wherein flow control means is provided for controlling the flow of electricity between the two parts in dependence on the level of stress of the respective grid part of the network.

Patent
Jean J. Botti1
15 Apr 2004
TL;DR: In this paper, a hybrid powertrain system includes a combustion engine, a battery buffer, a fuel cell unit, and an electric motor with an output for generating activation power to a transmission, providing a driving force to a vehicle.
Abstract: A hybrid powertrain system includes a combustion engine (111), a battery buffer (113) for storing electric energy by converting it onto chemical energy, which can be converted back into electrical energy when need, a fuel cell unit (115) having multiple fuel cells each of which is an electrochemical energy conversion device that converts hydrogen and oxygen into water, producing electricity and heat in the process, a power level control unit (117) for capturing electrical energy from the fuel cell unit (115) for delivering zero power, full power, or any power level in between, and an electric motor (119) having inputs for receiving energy from the combustion engine (111), the battery buffer (113) and the fuel cell unit (115), and an output for generating activation power to a transmission (121) providing a driving force to a vehicle.