Showing papers on "Steroid biosynthesis published in 2011"

Regulation of Endothelial Function by Mitochondrial Reactive Oxygen Species

Abstract: Mitochondria are well known for their central roles in ATP production, calcium homeostasis, and heme and steroid biosynthesis. However, mitochondrial reactive oxygen species (ROS), including superoxide and hydrogen peroxide, once thought to be toxic byproducts of mitochondrial physiologic activities, have recently been recognized as important cell-signaling molecules in the vascular endothelium, where their production, conversion, and destruction are highly regulated. Mitochondrial reactive oxygen species appear to regulate important vascular homeostatic functions under basal conditions in a variety of vascular beds, where, in particular, they contribute to endothelium-dependent vasodilation. On exposure to cardiovascular risk factors, endothelial mitochondria produce excessive ROS in concert with other cellular ROS sources. Mitochondrial ROS, in this setting, act as important signaling molecules activating prothrombotic and proinflammatory pathways in the vascular endothelium, a process that initially manifests itself as endothelial dysfunction and, if persistent, may lead to the development of atherosclerotic plaques. This review concentrates on emerging appreciation of the importance of mitochondrial ROS as cell-signaling molecules in the vascular endothelium under both physiologic and pathophysiologic conditions. Future potential avenues of research in this field also are discussed.

Structural basis for human NADPH-cytochrome P450 oxidoreductase deficiency.

Abstract: NADPH-cytochrome P450 oxidoreductase (CYPOR) is essential for electron donation to microsomal cytochrome P450-mediated monooxygenation in such diverse physiological processes as drug metabolism (approximately 85–90% of therapeutic drugs), steroid biosynthesis, and bioactive metabolite production (vitamin D and retinoic acid metabolites). Expressed by a single gene, CYPOR’s role with these multiple redox partners renders it a model for understanding protein–protein interactions at the structural level. Polymorphisms in human CYPOR have been shown to lead to defects in bone development and steroidogenesis, resulting in sexual dimorphisms, the severity of which differs significantly depending on the degree of CYPOR impairment. The atomic structure of human CYPOR is presented, with structures of two naturally occurring missense mutations, V492E and R457H. The overall structures of these CYPOR variants are similar to wild type. However, in both variants, local disruption of H bonding and salt bridging, involving the FAD pyrophosphate moiety, leads to weaker FAD binding, unstable protein, and loss of catalytic activity, which can be rescued by cofactor addition. The modes of polypeptide unfolding in these two variants differ significantly, as revealed by limited trypsin digestion: V492E is less stable but unfolds locally and gradually, whereas R457H is more stable but unfolds globally. FAD addition to either variant prevents trypsin digestion, supporting the role of the cofactor in conferring stability to CYPOR structure. Thus, CYPOR dysfunction in patients harboring these particular mutations may possibly be prevented by riboflavin therapy in utero, if predicted prenatally, or rescued postnatally in less severe cases.

Microaerobic steroid biosynthesis and the molecular fossil record of Archean life

Abstract: The power of molecular oxygen to drive many crucial biogeochemical processes, from cellular respiration to rock weathering, makes reconstructing the history of its production and accumulation a first-order question for understanding Earth’s evolution. Among the various geochemical proxies for the presence of O2 in the environment, molecular fossils offer a unique record of O2 where it was first produced and consumed by biology: in sunlit aquatic habitats. As steroid biosynthesis requires molecular oxygen, fossil steranes have been used to draw inferences about aerobiosis in the early Precambrian. However, better quantitative constraints on the O2 requirement of this biochemistry would clarify the implications of these molecular fossils for environmental conditions at the time of their production. Here we demonstrate that steroid biosynthesis is a microaerobic process, enabled by dissolved O2 concentrations in the nanomolar range. We present evidence that microaerobic marine environments (where steroid biosynthesis was possible) could have been widespread and persistent for long periods of time prior to the earliest geologic and isotopic evidence for atmospheric O2. In the late Archean, molecular oxygen likely cycled as a biogenic trace gas, much as compounds such as dimethylsulfide do today.

ATP Synthesis, Mitochondrial Function, and Steroid Biosynthesis in Rodent Primary and Tumor Leydig Cells

Abstract: Previous studies in MA-10 tumor Leydig cells demonstrated that disruption of the mitochondrial electron-transport chain (ETC), membrane potential (ΔΨm), or ATP synthesis independently inhibited steroidogenesis. In contrast, studies of primary Leydig cells indicated that the ETC, ΔΨm, and ATP synthesis cooperatively affected steroidogenesis. These results suggest significant differences between the two systems and call into question the extent to which results from tumor Leydig cells relate to primary cells. Thus, to further understand the similarities and differences between the two systems as well as the impact of ATP disruption on steroidogenesis, we performed comparative studies of MA-10 and primary Leydig cells under similar conditions of mitochondrial disruption. We show that mitochondrial ATP synthesis is critical for steroidogenesis in both primary and tumor Leydig cells. However, in striking contrast to primary cells, perturbation of ΔΨm in MA-10 cells did not substantially decrease cellular ATP content, a perplexing finding because ΔΨm powers the mitochondrial ATP synthase. Further studies revealed that a significant proportion of cellular ATP in MA-10 cells derives from glycolysis. In contrast, primary cells appear to be almost completely dependent on mitochondrial respiration for their energy provision. Inhibitor studies also suggested that the MA-10 ETC is impaired. This work underscores the importance of mitochondrial ATP for hormone-stimulated steroid production in both MA-10 and primary Leydig cells while indicating that caution must be exercised in extrapolating data from tumor cells to primary tissue.

Genome-wide analysis of alternative reproductive phenotypes in honeybee workers

Abstract: A defining feature of social insects is the reproductive division of labour, in which workers usually forego all reproduction to help their mother queen to reproduce. However, little is known about the molecular basis of this spectacular form of altruism. Here, we compared gene expression patterns between nonreproductive, altruistic workers and reproductive, non-altruistic workers in queenless honeybee colonies using a whole-genome microarray analysis. Our results demonstrate massive differences in gene expression patterns between these two sets of workers, with a total of 1292 genes being differentially expressed. In nonreproductive workers, genes associated with energy metabolism and respiration, flight and foraging behaviour, detection of visible light, flight and heart muscle contraction and synaptic transmission were overexpressed relative to reproductive workers. This implies they probably had a higher whole-body energy metabolism and activity rate and were most likely actively foraging, whereas same-aged reproductive workers were not. This pattern is predicted from evolutionary theory, given that reproductive workers should be less willing to compromise their reproductive futures by carrying out high-risk tasks such as foraging or other energetically expensive tasks. By contrast, reproductive workers mainly overexpressed oogenesis-related genes compared to nonreproductive ones. With respect to key switches for ovary activation, several genes involved in steroid biosynthesis were upregulated in reproductive workers, as well as genes known to respond to queen and brood pheromones, genes involved in TOR and insulin signalling pathways and genes located within quantitative trait loci associated with reproductive capacity in honeybees. Overall, our results provide unique insight into the molecular mechanisms underlying alternative reproductive phenotypes in honeybee workers.

eNOS activation and NO function: Differential control of steroidogenesis by nitric oxide and its adaptation with hypoxia

Abstract: Nitric oxide (NO) plays a role in a wide range of physiological processes. Aside from its widely studied function in the regulation of vascular function, NO has been shown to impact steroidogenesis in a number of different tissues. The goal of this review is to explore the effects of NO on steroid production and further, to discern its source(s) and mechanism of action. Attention will be given to the regulation of NO synthases in specific endocrine tissues including ovaries, testes, and adrenal glands. The effects of hypoxia on generation of NO and subsequent effects on steroid biosynthesis will also be examined. Finally, a potential model for the interaction of hypoxia on NO synthesis and steroid production is proposed.

The Arabidopsis translocator protein (AtTSPO) is regulated at multiple levels in response to salt stress and perturbations in tetrapyrrole metabolism.

Abstract: The translocator protein 18 kDa (TSPO), previously known as the peripheral-type benzodiazepine receptor (PBR), is important for many cellular functions in mammals and bacteria, such as steroid biosynthesis, cellular respiration, cell proliferation, apoptosis, immunomodulation, transport of porphyrins and anions. Arabidopsis thaliana contains a single TSPO/PBR-related gene with a 40 amino acid N-terminal extension compared to its homologs in bacteria or mammals suggesting it might be chloroplast or mitochondrial localized. To test if the TSPO N-terminal extension targets it to organelles, we fused three potential translational start sites in the TSPO cDNA to the N-terminus of GFP (AtTSPO:eGFP). The location of the AtTSPO:eGFP fusion protein was found to depend on the translational start position and the conditions under which plants were grown. Full-length AtTSPO:eGFP fusion protein was found in the endoplasmic reticulum and in vesicles of unknown identity when plants were grown in standard conditions. However, full length AtTSPO:eGFP localized to chloroplasts when grown in the presence of 150 mM NaCl, conditions of salt stress. In contrast, when AtTSPO:eGFP was truncated to the second or third start codon at amino acid position 21 or 42, the fusion protein co-localized with a mitochondrial marker in standard conditions. Using promoter GUS fusions, qRT-PCR, fluorescent protein tagging, and chloroplast fractionation approaches, we demonstrate that AtTSPO levels are regulated at the transcriptional, post-transcriptional and post-translational levels in response to abiotic stress conditions. Salt-responsive genes are increased in a tspo-1 knock-down mutant compared to wild type under conditions of salt stress, while they are decreased when AtTSPO is overexpressed. Mutations in tetrapyrrole biosynthesis genes and the application of chlorophyll or carotenoid biosynthesis inhibitors also affect AtTSPO expression. Our data suggest that AtTSPO plays a role in the response of Arabidopsis to high salt stress. Salt stress leads to re-localization of the AtTSPO from the ER to chloroplasts through its N-terminal extension. In addition, our results show that AtTSPO is regulated at the transcriptional level in tetrapyrrole biosynthetic mutants. Thus, we propose that AtTSPO may play a role in transporting tetrapyrrole intermediates during salt stress and other conditions in which tetrapyrrole metabolism is compromised.

Transcriptional Regulation of the Human P450 Oxidoreductase Gene: Hormonal Regulation and Influence of Promoter Polymorphisms

Abstract: P450 oxidoreductase (POR) is the flavoprotein that acts as the obligatory electron donor to all microsomal P450 enzymes, including those involved in hepatic drug metabolism as well as three steroidogenic P450 enzymes. The untranslated first exon of human POR was located recently, permitting analysis of human POR transcription. Expression of deletional mutants containing up to 3193 bp of the human POR promoter in human adrenal NCI-H295A and liver Hep-G2 cells located the proximal promoter at −325/−1 bp from the untranslated exon. Common human POR polymorphisms at −208 and −173 had little influence on transcription, but the polymorphism at −152 reduced transcription significantly in both cell lines. EMSA and supershift assays identified binding of Smad3/Smad4 between −249 and −261 and binding of thyroid hormone receptor-β (TRβ) at −240/−245. Chromatin immunoprecipitation showed that Smad3, Smad4, TRα, TRβ, and estrogen receptor-α were bound between −374 and −149. Cotransfection of vectors for these transcription factors and POR promoter-reporter constructs into both cell types followed by hormonal treatment showed that T3 exerts major tropic effects via TRβ, with TRα, estrogen receptor-α, Smad3, and Smad4 exerting lesser, modulatory effects. T3 also increased POR mRNA in both cell lines. Thyroid hormone also is essential for rat liver POR expression but acts via different transcription factor complexes. These are the first data on human POR gene transcription, establishing roles for TRβ and Smad3/4 in its expression and indicating that the common polymorphism at −152 may play a role in genetic variation in steroid biosynthesis and drug metabolism.

Functional and Physiological Consequences of StAR Deficiency: Role in Lipoid Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia

Abstract: The steroidogenic acute regulatory (StAR) protein is essential for all hormone-stimulated steroid biosynthesis. Accordingly, its absence gives rise to the most severe form of congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH), lipoid CAH. This life-threatening condition typically manifests itself in the perinatal period. Partial loss-of-function StAR mutations incompletely manifest the condition later in life and are a cause of familial glucocorticoid deficiency type 3. Here, we discuss StAR, its expression pattern and the clinical consequences of the loss of its activity.

Distinct expression pattern of Dicer1 correlates with ovarian-derived steroid hormone receptor expression in human Fallopian tubes during ovulation and the midsecretory phase.

Abstract: Cell-specific, stage-dependent regulation of Dicer1 expression correlates with multiple changes in steroid hormone receptor gene and protein expression in human Fallopian tubes.

Novel substrates for, and sources of, progestogens for reproduction.

Abstract: Steroid hormones, such as progesterone (P), are typically thought of as being primarily secreted by the gonads (albeit adrenals can also be a source) and having their actions through cognate intracellular progestin receptors (PRs). Through its actions in the midbrain Ventral Tegmental Area (VTA), P mediates appetitive (exploratory, anxiety, social approach) and consummatory (social, sexual) aspects of rodents’ mating behavior (Frye et al., 2006a). However, P and its natural metabolites (“progestogens”) are produced in the midbrain VTA independent of peripheral sources and midbrain VTA of adult rodents is devoid of intracellular PRs. One approach we have used to understand P’s effects and mechanisms in the VTA for mating is manipulate P’s actions in the VTA and to examine effects on lordosis (the posture female rodents assume for mating to occur). This review focuses on the effects and mechanisms of progestogens to influence reproduction and related proce sses. Actions of P and its 5α-reduced metabolite and neurosteroid, 5α-pregnan-3α-ol-20-one (3α,5α-THP; allopregnanolone) in the midbrain VTA to facilitate mating is described. The findings that 3α,5α-THP biosynthesis in the midbrain occurs with mating are discussed. Evidence for 3α,5α-THP’s actions in the midbrain VTA via non-traditional steroid targets is summarised. The broader relevance of these actions of 3α,5α-THP, for aspects of reproduction, beyond lordosis, are summarised. Finally, the potential role of the pregnane xenobiotic receptor in mediating 3α,5α-THP biosynthesis in the midbrain is introduced.

Endothelial nitric oxide synthase activation and nitric oxide function: new light through old windows.

Abstract: The principle mechanisms operating at the level of endothelial nitric oxide synthase (eNOS) itself to control its activity are phosphorylation, the auto-regulatory properties of the protein itself, and Ca(2)(+)/calmodulin binding. It is now clear that activation of eNOS is greatest when phosphorylation of certain serine and threonine residues is accompanied by elevation of cytosolic [Ca2+](i). While eNOS also contains an autoinhibitory loop, Rafikov et al. (2011) present the evidence for a newly identified 'flexible arm' that operates in response to redox state. Boeldt et al. (2011) also review the evidence that changes in the nature of endothelial Ca(2)(+) signaling itself in different physiologic states can extend both the amplitude and duration of NO output, and a failure to change these responses in pregnancy is associated with preeclampsia. The change in Ca(2)(+) signaling is mediated through altering capacitative entry mechanisms inherent in the cell, and so many agonist responses using this mechanism are altered. The term 'adaptive cell signaling' is also introduced for the first time to describe this phenomenon. Finally NO is classically regarded as a regulator of vascular function, but NO has other actions. One proposed role is regulation of steroid biosynthesis but the physiologic relevance was unclear. Ducsay & Myers (2011) now present new evidence that NO may provide the adrenal with a mechanism to regulate cortisol output according to exposure to hypoxia. One thing all three of these reviews show is that even after several decades of study into NO biosynthesis and function, there are clearly still many things left to discover.

Hormone-dependent expression of a steroidogenic acute regulatory protein natural antisense transcript in MA-10 mouse tumor Leydig cells.

Abstract: Cholesterol transport is essential for many physiological processes, including steroidogenesis. In steroidogenic cells hormone-induced cholesterol transport is controlled by a protein complex that includes steroidogenic acute regulatory protein (StAR). Star is expressed as 3.5-, 2.8-, and 1.6-kb transcripts that differ only in their 3′-untranslated regions. Because these transcripts share the same promoter, mRNA stability may be involved in their differential regulation and expression. Recently, the identification of natural antisense transcripts (NATs) has added another level of regulation to eukaryotic gene expression. Here we identified a new NAT that is complementary to the spliced Star mRNA sequence. Using 5′ and 3′ RACE, strand-specific RT-PCR, and ribonuclease protection assays, we demonstrated that Star NAT is expressed in MA-10 Leydig cells and steroidogenic murine tissues. Furthermore, we established that human chorionic gonadotropin stimulates Star NAT expression via cAMP. Our results show that sense-antisense Star RNAs may be coordinately regulated since they are co-expressed in MA-10 cells. Overexpression of Star NAT had a differential effect on the expression of the different Star sense transcripts following cAMP stimulation. Meanwhile, the levels of StAR protein and progesterone production were downregulated in the presence of Star NAT. Our data identify antisense transcription as an additional mechanism involved in the regulation of steroid biosynthesis.

Differential regulation of the human CYP11A1 promoter in mouse brain and adrenals.

Abstract: CYP11A1 encodes the first enzyme of steroid biosynthesis, cytochrome P450scc. The expression of CYP11A1 in the nervous system allows neurosteroids to be synthesized de novo. In the classic steroidogenic tissues, adrenals and gonads, the key regulator controlling CYP11A1 expression is steroidogenic factor-1 (SF-1), but the transcriptional regulation of CYP11A1 in the brain is unclear. We recently used the 4.4-kb regulatory region of the human CYP11A1 gene to drive Cre recombinase expression in the diencephalon and midbrain. In this study, we characterized the regional-specific expression of Cre reporter in the SCC-Cre transgenic brain using a transient Cre/ROSA26R transgenic system. Mutation of either the upstream or proximal SF-1 binding site did not affect brain CYP11A1 promoter activity. The upstream SF-1 binding site, however, is required for CYP11A1 promoter function in the embryonic adrenals. The 3.8-kb promoter, like the 4.4-kb length promoter, directed Cre expression in the diencephalon, midbrain and olfactory epithelium, whereas Cre expression controlled by the 2.7-kb promoter was only observed in the caudal part of midbrain. This suggests that the 5'-flanking region between 3.8 and 2.7 kb contains a crucial element for activation of CYP11A1 promoter in the diencephalon, olfactory epithelium and the anterior part of midbrain. Thus we have identified regions of the promoter that control CYP11A1 expression in the brain and embryonic adrenals.

Studies of a Cohort of 46,XY with DSD Including Steroid Biosynthesis Deficiencies

Abstract: Mutations of genes involved in sex development have been largely reported in the literature, but few data are available to evaluate the proportion of each gene defect in 46,XY DSD patients. We report molecular studies of a cohort of 644 families.

Regulation of sterol and glycoalkaloid biosynthesis in potato (Solanum tuberosum L.) : identification of key genes and enzymatic steps

Abstract: Steroidal glycoalkaloids (SGA) are toxic secondary metabolites present in some members of the Solanaceae family, including potato and tomato. The SGA level in tubers of potato (Solanum tuberosum L.) depends on genetic factors, but can also increase in response to e.g. wounding and light exposure. An upper limit of 200 mg SGA/kg f.w. is recommended in tubers used for human consumption. The SGA biosynthesis and its regulation are not fully understood, although cholesterol is often suggested as a likely SGA precursor. To gain more knowledge about the genetic regulation of SGA biosynthesis, a microarray study was performed during mechanical wounding or light exposure treatment of tubers from two potato cultivars. The results revealed six genes related to sterol and SGA biosynthesis as up-regulated during both treatments, and to be associated with increased SGA content. One of the genes, StDWF1, encoding a sterol Δ24-reductase similar to Arabidopsis DWF1, was further investigated in transgenic potato plants. Down-regulation of StDWF1 lowered the level of cholesterol as well as of SGA, demonstrating an important role of this gene in SGA synthesis. Homeostatic regulation of cholesterol metabolism in plants was investigated by over-expression of mouse cholesterol hydroxylases. In Arabidopsis, increased levels of hydroxylated sterols altered sterol/steroid metabolism as well as reduced plant growth. Similar effects were not observed in corresponding potato transformants, indicating species differences in sterol metabolism. To evaluate cholesterol as a SGA precursor, deuterium-labeled cholesterol was applied to potato shoots. Using LC-MS, label was shown to be incorporated into SGA. The work shows that increased SGA synthesis in potato tubers is mediated by the concerted action of at least six key genes, acting at different positions in steroid biosynthesis. Results also establish cholesterol as a SGA precursor in potato plants.