Showing papers on "Subsistence agriculture published in 1986"

Human impact on some forests of the middle hills of nepal 1. forestry in the context of the traditional resources of the state

Abstract: This is the first of a series of papers seeking to set in a historical context man's influence on the forests of the Nepalese Pahad (Middle Hills and adjoining montane areas). In later papers, attention will be focused on two specific districts and on some forests within them. In this paper, the interactions between political history, the traditional resources of the state, and forests are considered. Two main conclusions are drawn. First, that the deforestation of the Middle Hills is not a recent phenomenon but has a long history, being well established by the late eighteenth century at least. Second, that deforestation was caused mainly by the joint attack of government land-use policy and subsistence agriculture. Government policy promoted the conversion of forests to agriculture in order to maximize agricultural surpluses and land taxes. The severity of taxation in turn led to further forest clearing as peasants attempted to maintain subsistence living standards. Many compulsory labour obligations also involved forests and con- tributed to their degradation. Only in recent years has a real consciousness of the value of forests arisen and this has been reflected in legislation aimed at fostering effective community forestry.

An ecological basis for the development of alternative agricultural systems for small farmers in the Third World

Abstract: A strategy for small farm development in the Third World is suggested, emphasizing preservation of traditional farming systems while maintaining biological and genetic diversity. Basing agricultural development on indigenous knowledge, technology, and social organization can provide important guidelines for the design of cropping systems that allow low-income farmers to produce subsistence and cash crops with minimal dependence on external inputs. Suggested alternative agricultural strategies are based on diverse farming systems that achieve moderate to high levels of productivity by manipulating and exploiting resources that are internal to the farm. The resulting systems are more sustainable and economical, thus increasing the equity of the system. Several rural development programs in Third World countries, especially in Latin America, that incorporate these agroecological principles are discussed. In contrast to approaches that have been transferred from the United States without necessarily being suited to the circumstances of small farmers, and which require the purchase of expensive external inputs, these programs include sustainability, stability, and equity as goals, along with increased production. Rural development strategies based on peasant systems that are biologically and economically stable are proving to be a viable survival alternative for a great portion of the impoverished rural population in the Third World.

People-forest interaction: a neglected parameter .in himalayan forest management

Abstract: The village of Munglori in the Aglar watershed north of Dehradun, Uttar Pradesh Himalaya, is used for a case study on rural forest management. The study points out that the subsistence needs of the villagers invariably have been omitted from forest management planning. This neglect began in the last century under the British Raj and has continued to the present day. Munglori, with a population of 250, is overwhelmingly a subsistence village, but situated close enough to the expanding influence of Mussoorie and Dehradun to serve as a basis for comparison with other villages that are progressively adapting to a market economy. Research was directed at the biomass flow of the village, concentrating on the fuel cycle, the fodder cycle, and the yearly migration cycle. Relationships between village biomass consumption and forest productivity are demonstrated. In particular, it is shown that, under certain management situations, loss of forest cover can occur even though overall biomass productivity far exceeds village demand. Further quantitative studies are needed; in particular new developments in forest management must provide for full partici- pation of the villagers without which success will remain uncertain.

Human impact on some forests of the middle hills of nepal part 2. some major human impacts before 1950 on the forests of sindhu palchok and kabhre palanchok

Abstract: In accord with the general arguments propounded in Part 1 of this series of papers in Mountain Research and Development, detailed evidence for Sindhu Palchok and Kabhre Palanchok reveals that conversion of forest land to agricultural use was a major objective of government policy from at least the latter half of the eighteenth century onward. Throughout history, the two Districts must have been strongly affected by their relative proximity to the Kathmandu Valley. Land grants were made there by the Gorkhali rulers soon after subjugation of the region in 1745. Maintenance of the army appears to have imposed additional burdens on these Districts, particularly as a result of jagir land grants to army officers and other officials for services rendered. The jagir land grant system was maintained in these Districts well into the present century. The major exploitation of the residual forest, other than by peasants for subsistence purposes (to be dealt with in later parts of this series), was for construction in the Kathmandu Valley and for charcoal, mainly for smelting of ore. This latter use had virtually ceased by the early twentieth century.

Effect of deforestation and subsistence agriculture on runoff of the Kafue River headwaters, Zambia

Abstract: The paper presents the observed effects on the streamflow of changing a tropical forest in the high rainfall belt of Zambia to agricultural use based on traditional farming methods. Hydrological observations were carried out on four small catchments under their natural conditions first, and later two of them under agricultural use with accompanying deforestation. Simple linear regression analysis of both monthly and annual runoff from the treated catchments on the monthly and annual runoff from undisturbed catchments showed that there was an increase in streamflow as a result of deforestation and subsistence agriculture. It is also shown that the shape of the flood hydrograph was changed as a result of changes in land use.

The role of agroforestry in the farming systems in Rwanda with special reference to the Bugesera-Gisaka-Migongo (BGM) region

Abstract: The Rwandan farmers, faced with a perpetual land shortage, have evolved certain intensive systems of organic agriculture. These systems, particularly the homestead (compound) farming, involve the combination of food, fodder and tree crops. to a certain extent these systems can satisfy the multiple needs of the subsistence farmers living under several risks and constraints. However, they cannot cope with the expanding food demand of the rapidly increasing population. Some multipurpose, low-input technologies and agroforestry approaches have been designed to improve the productivity of these traditional systems; these include inter/mixed cropping systems and rotations, alley cropping with leguminous trees and shrubs, use of planted ‘fallow’, planting tree legumes on anti-erosive lines, mixed farming,community forestry and woodlots, and tree planting on farm/field boundaries. The essential aspects of these technologies are briefly discussed.

Competition between foragers and food-producers on the Botletli River, Botswana

Abstract: The immigration of food-producing groups into areas occupied by hunters and gatherers must have been a common occurrence in prehistory. How were the hunter-gatherers affected by this? I describe here two groups of Kalahari Basarwa (‘Bushmen’), one living along the flood plain of the lower Botletli river, the other occupying the savanna a short distance away from the river. These two groups differed in subsistence and social organisation and were affected by immigrant herders and farmers in strikingly different ways. Today the Basarwa of the flood plain are wealthy cattle owners, whereas those of the savanna are poor and have few or no cattle. How and why did the two groups respond so differently to the same competitive threat?

The Prospect For Desertification in Kajiado District, Kenya

Abstract: In Kajaido District Kenya the carrying capacity may soon be exceeded due to rapid population growth and land use changes leading to desertification. The major population affected is that of the Massai subsistence herdes who are restricted by the continuing expansion cultivation and are excluded from using Amboseli National Park during the dry seasons. The government of Kenya needs a development strategy which will promote and manage local activities to secure long-term economic growth and protection of resources. The focus of the article is to illuminate the processes which contribute to desertification and examine alternative strategies which reduce the negative impact. Desertification is not just related to drought conditions but is the inability of the environment to sustain the demands made on it by socioeconomic systems. The threshold conditions may be precipitated by adverse climatic changes; drought exacerbates existing degradation. Other conditions are situations in which cultivation moves into less human areas or areas must have been used by herders. In Kajiado District there is a shortage of land as well as inequalities in distribution. The physical and socioeconomic background of Kajiado District is described; also presented are land use patterns between 1900-63 and since independence. The drought of 1960-61 forced the government to sponsor rangeland development which resulted in group ranches for the Massai. The problem was that during the dry season and droughts resources within the ranches were insufficient. Land speculation patterns just before independence meant that the population moved onto the slopes of Ngong Hills and Mt. Kilimanjaro. During the drought years 1972-76 there was little reserve available due to overgrazing and expanded cultivation. As a result agricultural activities were intensified by reducing the fallow period and expanding into rangeland. The Maasai followed their traditional strategy and increased their herds. The implications are that people are vulnerable to environmental conditions and that rangeland capacity would be exceeded in 1984. With moderate to optimistic adjustments capacity would be exceeded in the period 1994-2035. Resources need to be developed outside the subsistence sector in order to reduce the number of people depending on subsistence production. Kajiado holds promise for managed development based on locally available skills.

The cultural ecology of dietary change accompanying changing activity patterns among the shipibo

Abstract: Shipibo Indians, who formed a village to establish a school and health clinic, are gradually depleting local fish and game resources. Men, recently adopting rice as a cash crop, tend to fish and hunt less than other men working only their subsistence gardens. Sale of fish and game in the village is becoming common, and pigs, once raised exclusively for sale to non-Shipibo, are now more regularly eaten and used for attracting agricultural labor. Other research has indicated that cash cropping often competes for workers' time in subsistence and so dietary change usually accompanies changing activity patterns. This paper explores the latter possibility by examining the relationship between cash cropping, wild meat procurement, and diet among the Shipibo. Time allocation and food consumption data are analyzed statistically to test a mathematical theory and model which relates indigenous work patterns to diet.

What Can Agriculture Do for the Poorest Rural Groups

Abstract: Most of the world’s poorest people live in rural areas. They derive a large share of income from agriculture, as small farmers or as workers – or as both. Agricultural development is therefore often seen as the key to reducing poverty, especially rural poverty. In most of sub-Saharan Africa, for example, where the rural poor are mostly small farmers, it is clear that increasing the efficiency of these farmers vis-a-vis large farmers (or of the country as a whole vis-a-vis competing countries) improves the small farmers’ condition. They can expand their sales and/or can produce their own subsistence with less effort or lower cash costs (for a full discussion see World Bank, 1986).

Mississippian Occupation of the Savannah River Valley

Abstract: Before 1970, knowledge of Mississippian occupations in the Savannah River Valley came from isolated, often brief reports describing investigations at major ceremonial centers, such as Irene, Hollywood, Rembert, Chauga, Tugalo, and Estatoe Extensive fieldwork over the past 15 years, however, has permitted for the first time the development of riverine-extensive chronological sequences, useful for detailing sociopolitical, settlement, and subsistence evolution within local Mississippian societies Within the Savannah River basin the Woodland to Mississippian transition is characterized by a shift from small, widely dispersed sites to larger, nucleated settlements located near the floodplain, and the emergence of politicali ceremonial centers Subsistence practices proceed from a generalized to a more focused pattern of wild food procurement, coupled with an increasingly intensive reliance on agriculture Evidence is emerging that documents the appearance and evolution of discrete chiefly societies within the valley, a process that appears to be linked to political developments occurring throughout the region

Subsistence cultivation in the Caribbean

Abstract: Subsistence cultivation on small plots is a marked characteristic of rural life in the Caribbean islands, as it is in most areas in the American tropics. It closely resembles the subsistence cultivation systems of neighboring areas and has been classified as a subcategory of American tropical forest agriculture (Denevan 1980; Katz, Hediger & Valleroy 1974: 769). Yet its practitioners are not natives of the American tropics, but the descendants of Africans who often grew their own food and a small market surplus on the unused lands near the plantations on which they worked as slaves. These provision grounds were important in their adaptations to slavery and to the changes later brought by emancipation (Mintz & Hall 1960). That they are still an essential part of rural land use, economy, and household survival has been recog nized in an abundant literature.2 Most of the studies in this literature are local and particular. Few attempt any intra-regional comparison or generalization (Hills & Iton 1982, 1983; Momsen 1972; Paquette 1968, 1982; Rashford 1982), and none attempt extra-regional comparison or systematic synthesis. This is surprising when we consider the synthesizing and explanatory efforts applied to some other important Afro-American cultural features with multi-cultural origins, such as religion or Creole languages (e.g., Al leyne 1980; Bickerton 1975; Carrington et al. 1983; Simpson 1978; Taylor 1977). This paper uses both intra-regional and extra-regional comparison to test a working hypothesis developed in the field. It asks whether a

Late Woodland Cultures of the Middle Atlantic Region

Abstract: Provides a comparative overview of the late prehistoric cultures that lived in the Middle Atlantic region between A.D. 1000 and A.D. 1600. Regional specialists address issues regarding social complexity, community pattering and organization, social organizations, subsistence (especially the use of agriculture), warfare, and use of storage.

Study of Monogahela Subsistence Patterns Based On Mass Spectrometric Analysis

Abstract: Archaeological investigations have treated agriculture as a nominal variable. Mass spectrometric analysis allows a more detailed characterization of a prehistoric sub sistence system. Bone from four Late Prehistoric Monongahela sites in the West Virginia panhandle was analyzed mass spectrometrically. The I3C values ob tained indicate that 1) the Monongahela subsistence system was a specialized sys tem based on maize agriculture; 2) ecological differences across sites are associated with variation in the levels of maize consumption; and 3) maize as a food source comprised at least 70% of the diet at all four sites. These suggest that the Mononga hela subsistence base was nutritionally inadequate and highly specialized, and hence susceptible to both famine and subsistence collapse.