Showing papers on "Subsistence agriculture published in 2020"
Book•
28 Apr 2020
189 citations
TL;DR: In this article, a critical assessment was made on viable low-input technologies aimed to reduce the negative effects of agricultural production as well as the use of various crop simulation models for forecasting the agricultural production under changing climatic scenario.
89 citations
TL;DR: In this article, the authors examine the long historical trajectory that has relegated most artisanal and small-scale mining activities in sub-Saharan Africa to the informal economy, and examine the sector's more obvious economic impacts.
68 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, a systematic review of original research articles, published up until October 2016, reveals the status of in-field knowledge to inform future research, finding that farmers worldwide have been experiencing changes in climate mainly regarding rising temperature, unpredictable and reduced rainfall.
Abstract: Climate change is the world’s most pressing environmental issue, influencing almost all sectors of the economy. Agriculture is one of those sectors whose performance is primarily determined by an increasingly variable climate. Consequently, agriculture workers and particularly subsistence farmers are the proximate witnesses of the changing climate as their plight is one of having to struggle for their livelihood in the face of these emerging disruptions. Researchers in recent years have focused on ascertaining the perceived impacts of, and response to, climate change and agriculture. This study reviews the research specific to climate change-related experiences and observations of members of farming communities. Based on a systematic review of original research articles, published up until October 2016, the study reveals the status of in-field knowledge to inform future research. The review found that farmers worldwide have been experiencing changes in climate mainly regarding rising temperature, unpredictable and reduced rainfall. A majority have witnessed reduced agricultural production. Farmers hold differing explanations and respond accordingly to combat those changes. To orient adaptation measures towards those who are already experiencing and trying to respond to such changes, it is crucial to recognize and understand their views when formulating adaptation plans and policies.
48 citations
TL;DR: It is argued that the origins of agriculture involved profound transformations in human life history strategies, impacting both the availability of energy and the way that it was allocated between life history functions in the body.
Abstract: Over recent millennia, human populations have regularly reconstructed their subsistence niches, changing both how they obtain food and the conditions in which they live. For example, over the last 12,000 years the vast majority of human populations shifted from foraging to practicing different forms of agriculture. The shift to farming is widely understood to have impacted several aspects of human demography and biology, including mortality risk, population growth, adult body size, and physical markers of health. However, these trends have not been integrated within an over-arching conceptual framework, and there is poor understanding of why populations tended to increase in population size during periods when markers of health deteriorated. Here, we offer a novel conceptual approach based on evolutionary life history theory. This theory assumes that energy availability is finite and must be allocated in competition between the functions of maintenance, growth, reproduction, and defence. In any given environment, and at any given stage during the life-course, natural selection favours energy allocation strategies that maximise fitness. We argue that the origins of agriculture involved profound transformations in human life history strategies, impacting both the availability of energy and the way that it was allocated between life history functions in the body. Although overall energy supply increased, the diet composition changed, while sedentary populations were challenged by new infectious burdens. We propose that this composite new ecological niche favoured increased energy allocation to defence (immune function) and reproduction, thus reducing the allocation to growth and maintenance. We review evidence in support of this hypothesis and highlight how further work could address both heterogeneity and specific aspects of the origins of agriculture in more detail. Our approach can be applied to many other transformations of the human subsistence niche, and can shed new light on the way that health, height, life expectancy, and fertility patterns are changing in association with globalization and nutrition transition.
45 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, a new typology of small farms in Europe using a multivariate analysis drawing from household surveys from 14 European countries has been proposed, which provides evidence of entrepreneurship and strong market linkages as well as a range of motivations.
45 citations
TL;DR: Rwanda’s Crop Intensification program decreases social resilience to climatic shocks and needs to be replaced with sustainable intensification policies that empower local agroecological knowledge.
44 citations
TL;DR: Concluding, food system should change toward more sustainable practices and behaviors in other to ensure the subsistence of the present and the future generations.
Abstract: Due to the increasing population, there is high concern about whether the current food system will be able to provide enough healthy food for 10 billion people by 2050. The general opinion is that it is possible to feed this population, but the food system requires major transformations on behalf of promoting sustainability, reducing food waste and stimulating a change toward diets healthy for humans and also sustainable for the planet. This article will review some detected problems in food production and consumption. In food production, current problems like destruction of land ecosystems, overfishing or generation of high amounts of residues stand out. Some solutions have been described, such as implement the agroecology, improve productivity of aquaculture or re-valorization of by-products. In food consumption, the main problems are the food fraud and the unhealthy dietary patters, whose main solutions are the standardization along food chain and education on healthy lifestyles. Concluding, food system should change toward more sustainable practices and behaviors in other to ensure the subsistence of the present and the future generations.
43 citations
TL;DR: Low-income entrepreneurs operating in resource-scarce settings are typically referred to as subsistence entrepreneurs as mentioned in this paper, informal, operating on a small scale, and selling products developed by themselves.
Abstract: Low-income entrepreneurs operating in resource-scarce settings are typically referred to as subsistence entrepreneurs – informal, operating on a small scale, and selling products developed ...
41 citations
TL;DR: In this article, the authors investigated agricultural land use change in Chitwan, Nuwakot and Lamjung districts of Nepal during 1990-2017 in relation to rural outmigration.
40 citations
TL;DR: It is suggested that increasing spatial and temporal variation in the Pleistocene favoured cultural adaptations.
Abstract: Humans evolved from an ape ancestor that was highly intelligent, moderately social and moderately dependent on cultural adaptations for subsistence technology (tools). By the late Pleistocene, humans had become highly dependent on culture for subsistence and for rules to organize a complex social life. Adaptation by cultural traditions transformed our life history, leading to an extended juvenile period to learn subsistence and social skills, post-reproductive survival to help conserve and transmit skills, a dependence on social support for mothers of large-brained, very dependent and nutrient-demanding offspring, males devoting substantial effort to provisioning rather than mating, and the cultivation of large social networks to tap pools in information unavailable to less social species. One measure of the success of the exploitation of culture is that the minimum inter-birth interval of humans is nearly half that of our ape relatives. Another measure is the wide geographical distribution of humans compared with other apes, based on subsistence systems adapted to fine-scale spatial environmental variation. An important macro-evolutionary question is why our big-brained, culture-intensive life-history strategy evolved so recently and in only our lineage. We suggest that increasing spatial and temporal variation in the Pleistocene favoured cultural adaptations. This article is part of the theme issue 'Life history and learning: how childhood, caregiving and old age shape cognition and culture in humans and other animals'.
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors identify a number of distinctive features of smallholder agriculture in developing countries that affect agricultural adoption, such as: they may be relatively more heterogeneous in their constraints, capabilities, resources, attitudes and priorities; they prioritize subsistence over profits; they may have relatively high future discount rates; nonlandowner farmers may be less able to capture the benefits resulting from an innovation; and there may be lower and slower diffusion of information across the farming population, with more variable extension quantity and quality.
Abstract: Predictions of the speed and extent of adoption of new agricultural practices and technologies are needed to inform decisions and plans in agricultural policy, research and extension. Using an existing tool for predicting the adoption of agricultural innovations in developed countries as the starting point, we identify a number of distinctive features of smallholder agriculture in developing countries that affect agricultural adoption. Additional factors that need to be considered when making predictions of adoption by smallholder populations include: They may be relatively more heterogeneous in their constraints, capabilities, resources, attitudes and priorities; they may be more influenced by particular cultural norms; they may prioritize subsistence over profits; they may be less reliant on agriculture as their primary source of income; they may have relatively high future discount rates; nonlandowner farmers may be less able to capture the benefits resulting from an innovation; and there may be lower and slower diffusion of information across the farming population, with more variable extension quantity and quality.
Book•
08 Oct 2020
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors study the process involved in the transformation of smallholder rice farming in the Lower Mekong Basin from a low-yielding subsistence activity to one producing the surpluses needed for national self-sufficiency and a high-value export industry.
Abstract: This open access book is about understanding the processes involved in the transformation of smallholder rice farming in the Lower Mekong Basin from a low-yielding subsistence activity to one producing the surpluses needed for national self-sufficiency and a high-value export industry. For centuries, farmers in the Basin have regarded rice as “white gold”, reflecting its centrality to their food security and well-being. In the past four decades, rice has also become a commercial crop of great importance to Mekong farmers, augmenting but not replacing its role in securing their subsistence. This book is based on collaborative research to (a) compare the current situation and trajectories of rice farmers within and between different regions of the Lower Mekong, (b) explore the value chains linking rice farmers with new technologies and input and output markets within and across national borders, and (c) understand the changing role of government policies in facilitating the on-going evolution of commercial rice farming. An introductory section places the research in geographical and historical context. Four major sections deal in turn with studies of rice farming, value chains, and policies in Northeast Thailand, Central Laos, Southeastern Cambodia, and the Mekong Delta. The final section examines the implications for rice policy in the region as a whole.
TL;DR: In this article, the processes of human subsistence strategies in the highlands of Central Asia remain poorly understood, and the authors present a set of tools to understand these processes in a more complete way.
Abstract: The highlands of Central Asia posed considerable challenges to early agriculturalists, yet the processes of human subsistence strategies there remain poorly understood. In this paper, we present re...
25 Oct 2020
TL;DR: Early agriculture: Recent Conceptual and Methodological Developments as discussed by the authors, an Evolutionary Continuum of Plant-People Interaction (1989) 3. Darwinism and its Role in the Explanation of Domestication (1989), 4. Non-Affluent Foragers: Resource Availability, Seasonal Shortages, and the Emergence of Agriculture in Panamanian Tropical Forests (1999) 5. The Impact of Maize on Subsistence Systems in South America: An Example from the Jama River Valley, Coastal Ecuador (1999), 6. Cultural Implications of C
Abstract: 1. Early Agriculture: Recent Conceptual and Methodological Developments 2. An Evolutionary Continuum of Plant-People Interaction (1989) 3. Darwinism and its Role in the Explanation of Domestication (1989) 4. Non-Affluent Foragers: Resource Availability, Seasonal Shortages, and the Emergence of Agriculture in Panamanian Tropical Forests (1989) 5. The Impact of Maize on Subsistence Systems in South America: An Example from the Jama River Valley, Coastal Ecuador (1999) 6. Cultural Implications of Crop Introductions in Andean Prehistory (1999) 7. Early Plant Cultivation in the Eastern Woodlands of North America (1989) 8. The Dispersal of Domesticated Plants into North-Eastern Japan (1999) 9. The Origins and Development of New Guinea Agriculture (1989) 10. Subsistence Changes in India and Pakistan: The Neolithic and Chalcolithic from the Point of View of Plant use Today (1989) 11. Domestication of the Southwest Asian Neolithic Crop Assemblage of Cereals, Pulses, and Flax: The Evidence from the Living Plants (1989) 12. Agrarian Change and the Beginnings of Cultivation in the Near East: Evidence from Wild Progenitors, Experimental Cultivation and Archaeobotanical Data (1999) 13. The Beginnings of Food Production in Southwestern Kenya (1993)
TL;DR: More research is needed on the mechanisms of how rice culture is transmitted in the modern world, as well as other subsistence styles, such as corn farming and cash crops like sugar.
Abstract: Roughly four billion people live in cultures with a legacy of rice farm. Recent studies find that rice cultures are more interdependent than herding cultures and wheat-farming cultures. In China, people from rice-farming areas think more holistically and show less implicit individualism than people from wheat-farming areas. These differences are mirrored in micro-level comparisons of neighboring counties differ in rice versus wheat. Research has also found evidence of cultural differences based on rice farming within Japan and around the world. However, we know little about the mechanism of how rice culture is transmitted in the modern world. More research is needed on the mechanisms, as well as other subsistence styles, such as corn farming and cash crops like sugar.
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors used applied geospatial methods to reveal spatial patterns of crop-raiding by nonhuman primates and preventive actions by farmers in the Taita Hills, southeast Kenya.
TL;DR: It is argued that the role of wheat in the subsistence of the late Neolithic and early Bronze Age of central China was minimal, and that wheat only began to increase in its subsistence role in the later Bronze Age during the Zhou dynasty after ca.
Abstract: The introduction of wheat into central China is thought to have been one of the significant contributions of interactions between China and Central Asia which began in the 3rd millennium bc. However, only a limited number of Neolithic wheat grains have been found in central China and even fewer have been directly radiocarbon dated, making the date when wheat was adopted in the region and its role in subsistence farming uncertain. Based on systematic archaeobotanical data and direct dating of wheat remains from the Xiazhai site in central China, as well as a critical review of all reported discoveries of Neolithic and Bronze Age wheat from this region, we conclude that many wheat finds are intrusive in Neolithic contexts. We argue that the role of wheat in the subsistence of the late Neolithic and early Bronze Age of central China was minimal, and that wheat only began to increase in its subsistence role in the later Bronze Age during the Zhou dynasty after ca. 1000 bc.
TL;DR: In 2014, relatively abundant animal remains were unearthed in the Lower Cultural Layer (LCL, 15400-13100 cal yr BP) of the “151 site” located in the Qinghai Lake Basin, providing important information about human subsistence strategies on the Tibetan Plateau during the Last Deglaciation.
Abstract: The study of prehistoric hunter-gatherer subsistence strategies on the Tibetan Plateau is important for understanding the mechanisms and processes of human adaption to high altitude environments. But to date, only a few Paleolithic sites have been found on the Tibetan Plateau with clear stratigraphy and reliable dating. These sites are mainly distributed in the Qinghai Lake Basin on the northeastern part of the plateau, and the sporadic fauna and flora remains excavated provide limited information about the subsistence strategies of hunter-gatherers. In 2014, relatively abundant animal remains were unearthed in the Lower Cultural Layer (LCL, 15400–13100 cal yr BP) of the “151 site” located in the Qinghai Lake Basin, providing important information about human subsistence strategies on the Tibetan Plateau during the Last Deglaciation. Zooarchaeological analysis of these faunal remains indicates that hunter-gatherers at the “151 site” mainly targeted large ungulates of Bos and wild horse/ass, and only brought back the most nutritious parts of animal carcasses including upper and intermediate limb bones, heads, and trunks (ribs and vertebrae). People then processed and consumed the carcasses around single hearths. Our comprehensive analyses of contemporaneous sites in the Qinghai Lake Basin show that a subsistence strategy involving opportunistic hunting of ungulates, high mobility, and short occupation of campsites was used by terminal Pleistocene hunter-gatherers to adapt to the high-altitude environment on the Tibetan Plateau. This subsistence strategy may have been a first step of gradual hunter-gatherer adaptation to the extreme conditions on the Tibetan Plateau after the Last Glacial Maximum, and laid the foundation for the widespread distribution of hunter-gatherers on the plateau during the Holocene.
TL;DR: The unprecedented challenges posed by climate change necessitate agricultural adaptation by farmers, especially in the regions of Asia, where rain-fed agriculture is the principal source of food supply as mentioned in this paper.
Abstract: The unprecedented challenges posed by climate change necessitate agricultural adaptation by farmers, especially in the regions of Asia, where rain-fed agriculture is the principal source of food pr...
TL;DR: In this article, the authors provided the first report of the current status and trends of agriculture in Cabo Verde and assessed the impact of institutional strategies on crop production and evaluate recent mechanisms that have been engaged towards agrarian development in this archipelago.
Abstract: With climate change, drought is expected to increase, and its negative impacts will be particularly important in developing countries, usually with rainfall-dependent agriculture. The Cabo Verde archipelago is characterized by limited resources, remoteness, vulnerability to natural disasters, and a fragile environment. In this study, we provide the first report of the current status and trends of agriculture in Cabo Verde. We present data on the current performance of agricultural production areas in these islands and discuss them in terms of their most important natural constraint, water. Also, we assess the impact of institutional strategies on crop production and evaluate recent mechanisms that have been engaged towards agrarian development in this archipelago. Our results show that, among the ten Cabo Verde Islands, Santiago has the largest area used for agriculture (52.5%), followed by Santo Antao (16%) and Fogo (15.8%), and that rainfed farming dominates in all of them. The staple crops, such as maize and beans, are produced through rainfed subsistence farming, whereas irrigated crops (i.e., sugarcane, tomatoes) are mostly grown for commercial purposes. The prolonged drought periods, exposure, erosion and soil degradation, which led to increasing desertification over the last decades, have been identified as the main constraints to agrarian development across the ten islands of the archipelago. The strategies of Cabo Verde government to mitigate water scarcity through small-scale irrigation based mainly on small dams and drip irrigation technology have a marked effect on agricultural production in the predominantly arid and semi-arid areas of this archipelago.
TL;DR: In this article, the authors build on an analysis of close to twenty years of World Bank reports on land reform in four post-communist countries to show how and why the transfer of land and commercialization end up contradicting rather than mutually supporting each other.
TL;DR: Results show that to achieve a sustainable improvement of the DP, a deep understanding of the system, the rational use of the endogenous resources, and implementation of low-cost technologies is necessary.
Abstract: Dual-purpose cattle smallholder farms (DP) exhibit a critical economic situation. The objective of this research was building a typology for DP in tropical conditions and characterizing them technologically. This will help developing more effective public policies in DP farms located in tropical conditions. A sample of 1.475 farms located in the tropical area of Mexico was selected. The typology was built using multiple correspondence analysis (MCA). Subsequently, five groups were identified by a hierarchical cluster analysis with Ward's method. Groups 1 and 2, covered a 46.5% of the farms; these ones presented a small-scale productive model with low levels of technological adoption, improvements were mainly associated to the area of reproduction and genetics. Very small farms (Group 3) showed orientation to subsistence. They need to improve all the technological areas. Groups 4 and 5 (29.4% of the sample) were the biggest and more specialized farms. Group four farms were located in dry tropics and showed the highest levels of technological adoption in the areas of reproduction, management, and feeding. These farms require improvement in the areas of reproduction, animal health, and feeding. Group 5 farms were located in the wet tropics and showed specialization in reproduction, genetics, and animal health areas. In this last group, it is necessary to improve management and feeding areas.
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors explore human subsistence strategies, adaptation and resilience at Nunalleq, a recently excavated pre-contact Yup'ik coastal site in southwest Alaska, through a unique multi-proxy approach (zooarchaeology, bone technology and stable isotope analysis).
TL;DR: In this article, the authors examined the environmental and livelihood impacts of smallholder agricultural mechanization in Ghana in the context of the ongoing pursuit of a new Green Revolution for Africa, highlighting the complex linkages between agricultural development, environmental degradation, and rural livelihoods.
Abstract: This paper draws theoretical insights from political ecology to examine the environmental and livelihood impacts of smallholder agricultural mechanization in Ghana in the context of the ongoing pursuit of a new Green Revolution for Africa. Our findings highlight the complex linkages between agricultural development, environmental degradation, and rural livelihoods. Despite the associated increased returns-to-scale in agricultural productivity and enhanced speed in land preparation with tractor-based mechanization, the clearing of major trees on farmlands as a precondition for obtaining ploughing services encourages land degradation, including the depletion of vital naturally growing tree species—shea (Vitellaria paradoxa) and dawadawa (Parkia biglobosa)—that have critical food provisioning, cultural, and socioeconomic value. The drive towards extensification has further produced competitive forces that fuel the appropriation of previously inalienable communal lands and weakening of longstanding norms that mediate environmental resource conservation and use. This situation is poised to alter customary land governance and the basis on which women assert their rights to land-based resources including shea and dawadawa. Marginalized women are progressively shifting their livelihood strategies into environmentally unsustainable subsistence activities. This study demonstrates the adverse ecological, socioeconomic, and political impacts of agricultural mechanization when implemented in agrarian societies marked by widespread poverty and pervasive gender inequities. Given the growing centrality of tractors and trees to rural livelihoods, we recommend conservation agriculture for the simultaneous promotion of sustainable agriculture and environmental conservation. Relevant social policies must also be implemented to ameliorate the adverse livelihood impacts of these agrarian reforms.
TL;DR: A meta-analysis of published carbon and nitrogen isotope data from archaeological human skeletal remains from 128 sites cross China finds evidence for an already distinct north versus south divide in the use of main crop staples, and argues that regional differentiation in dietary tradition is driven by myriad subsistence choices that combined and discarded modes in a number of innovative ways over thousands of years.
Abstract: We conducted a meta-analysis of published carbon and nitrogen isotope data from archaeological human skeletal remains (n = 2448) from 128 sites cross China in order to investigate broad spatial and temporal patterns in the formation of staple cuisines. Between 6000-5000 cal BC we found evidence for an already distinct north versus south divide in the use of main crop staples (namely millet vs. a broad spectrum of C3 plant based diet including rice) that became more pronounced between 5000-2000 cal BC. We infer that this pattern can be understood as a difference in the spectrum of subsistence activities employed in the Loess Plateau and the Yangtze-Huai regions, which can be partly explained by differences in environmental conditions. We argue that regional differentiation in dietary tradition are not driven by differences in the conventional "stages" of shifting modes of subsistence (hunting-foraging-pastoralism-farming), but rather by myriad subsistence choices that combined and discarded modes in a number of innovative ways over thousands of years. The introduction of wheat and barley from southwestern Asia after 2000 cal BC resulted in the development of an additional east to west gradient in the degree of incorporation of the different staple products into human diets. Wheat and barley were rapidly adopted as staple foods in the Continental Interior contra the very gradual pace of adoption of these western crops in the Loess Plateau. While environmental and social factors likely contributed to their slow adoption, we explored local cooking practice as a third explanation; wheat and barley may have been more readily folded into grinding-and-baking cooking traditions than into steaming-and-boiling traditions. Changes in these culinary practices may have begun in the female sector of society.
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors sought to establish the relationship between entrepreneurship and marginalization of women in developing economies and found that women in these countries are largely marginalised and their circumstances could be improved through entrepreneurship.
Abstract: Subsistence women in developing economies are largely marginalised yet their circumstances could be improved through entrepreneurship. The study sought to establish the relationship between entrepr...
TL;DR: In this article, the authors conducted a study in a highly contrasted agricultural landscape of the Ethiopian highlands comprising two distinct farming systems: large-scale farming relying on modern, combine machinery and technology (e.g., enhanced crop varieties, application of herbicides, pesticides and synthetic fertilizers) vs small-scale traditional farming, and disentangled the effects upon avian biodiversity of the operating farming system and the extent of semi-natural habitat features in the wider landscape.
TL;DR: Akab, one of the many Neolithic shell middens of the United Arab Emirates coastline, is situated in the Umm al-Quwain lagoon as discussed by the authors.
Abstract: The Neolithic period in Eastern Arabia (especially from 5500 to 3100 BC) is better understood due to recent excavations of stratified sites stretching from Kuwait to the Sultanate of Oman. When oasis agriculture developed from the Bronze Age onwards, herding, shellfish gathering, and fishing became the primary modes of subsistence, and despite strong regional aridity, coastal shell middens provide the best preservation conditions in the Persian Gulf. Akab, one of the many Neolithic shell middens of the United Arab Emirates coastline, is situated in the Umm al-Quwain lagoon. This settlement is dated to the second part of the fifth millennium BC and has provided more than 37,000 fish remains, derived from over 50 fish species. Ichthyofaunal analysis underlines the predominance of coastal pelagics, such as kawakawas and trevallies, and the exploitation of several coastal fishes, mostly seabreams and emperors. Inhabitants fished over a wide aquatic territory, which included shallow-water biotopes, situated inside the lagoon, and the open sea. The associated fishing gear, composed of stone sinkers and shell fishhooks, indicates that nets and lines were used. Here, we review the seasonal organization of activities and mobility schemes from an archaeo-ichthyological perspective.
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors use system dynamics (SD) as a modeling technique to identify the main driving forces operating on the Galapagos food system to create a series of future scenarios and to examine the subsequent implications across the supply system structures.
Abstract: Like many other oceanic islands around the globe, environmental conditions, social circumstances and forces of globalization combine to challenge the sustainability of the Galapagos Archipelago of Ecuador. This paper describes a food-supply system in Galapagos that is mainly controlled by population growth, weak local agriculture, imports from mainland Ecuador and the influence of a growing tourism industry. We use system dynamics (SD) as a modeling technique in this paper to identify the main driving forces operating on the Galapagos food system to create a series of future scenarios and to examine the subsequent implications across the supply system structures. We model the supply side of the food system using secondary data collected from governmental and non-governmental sources. We find that the consumption profile of the local inhabitants of the Galapagos is on average higher than consumption in the Ecuadorian mainland. This fact, plus rapid growth of the local population fueled by the tourism industry, has created a decrease in per capita local food production and an increase on food import dependence that now, challenges the sustainability of the archipelago. Imports are the largest source of food in the archipelago. Approximately 75% of the agricultural food supply was transported from the mainland in 2017. Our model projects that this fraction will increase to 95% by 2037 with no changes in food policy. Moreover, any plan to increase tourism arrivals must be accompanied by a plan to address the subsistence needs of the new population that the tourism industry attracts. Policies to promote local agricultural growth should be central to the development strategy implemented in the Galapagos.