Subsistence agriculture

About: Subsistence agriculture is a research topic. Over the lifetime, 8069 publications have been published within this topic receiving 156876 citations. The topic is also known as: subsistence farming.

The challenge of deforestation in tropical Africa: reflections on its principal causes, consequences and solutions

Abstract: Economic development is dependant on factors including capital, labour force and natural resources. Forests are natural resources which, if properly managed, can provide habitats for animal and plant species, pasture for livestock, wood for shelter, timber and fuelwood, land for agriculture and can have a favourable effect on weather and climatic patterns. Nevertheless, deforestation has been a widespread phenomenon in tropical Africa, with an annual forest clearance of between 1·3–3·7 million ha. This paper reviews the pattern of deforestation in tropical Africa by examining its causes and consequences, as well as assessing the prospects for the attempts being made to control it. It identifies forest clearance for subsistence farming as the principal determinant of deforestation, but does not consider the ignorance of small-scale farmers as the underlying cause. Given the deteriorating agricultural production, the paper argues that the principal issue is not how to stop forest depletion, but how to manage forest resources to enable the community meets its objectives on an effective, fair and efficient basis. An approach which releases part of the rural population from the land or provides an alternative form of a secure livelihood is an example of the sustainable strategies for managing forests. © 1998 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Nobody farms here anymore: Livelihood diversification in the Amazonian community of Carvão, a historical perspective

Abstract: Over the past 15 years income sources in the Amazonian community of Carvao have diversified to include government salaries, retirement and welfare benefits, and wages from an evolving informal service sector. These non-farm incomes are now more important to household incomes than the sale of agricultural products. Out of 80 households only three families were found to depend almost entirely on the sale of agricultural goods for cash income. Agriculture is still a part of most families’ livelihoods; however, production today is mainly a subsistence activity. Recent changes in Carvao are consistent with trends of livelihood diversification observed in rural societies across the globe. However, current research reveals that Carvao is different from other case studies in a number of ways. A history of livelihoods illustrates that residents in Carvao have always engaged in a range of activities, including farming, extractive activities, and wage labor. New incomes are the result of new jobs in the public sector and social policies benefiting the rural poor. In contrast to the literature on livelihood diversification, the decentralization of the federal government in Brazil has resulted in greater opportunities for rural income and employment. Consistent with recorded trends, research shows that small farmers in Carvao have down-sized agricultural production. Farmers cite low market prices (the result of vertical integration of local markets) as one cause of this decline. Residents, especially small farmers, interested in diversifying agricultural production are limited by inadequate extension services and credit, and younger residents seek public sector employment. Income diversification has increased livelihoods security; however, future livelihoods will depend on new economic growth. Given the stagnating public sector and a weak industrial sector, production geared toward growing urban markets is a viable means for further income generation in Carvao.

Combining multi‐scale socio‐ecological approaches to understand the susceptibility of subsistence farmers to elephant crop raiding on the edge of a protected area

Abstract: Summary 1. Coexistence between subsistence farmers and elephants leads to problems for conservation and food security, especially on the edge of protected areas. Crop-raiding patterns have been investigated for decades, but understanding both social and ecological determinants remains a key challenge to defining realistic management options in a context of increasing human and elephant densities. 2. Hwange National Park, Zimbabwe, and its periphery, hosts one of the highest densities of free-ranging elephants. As scale is a critical element of ecological systems, we analysed the determinants of crop raiding at three spatial scales: the study area (217 households in 200 km²), the village (30 fields in 14 km²) and the edge of the refuge area (30 fields in less than 3 km²). We combined foraging ecology with sociological approaches, including a participatory experiment, to understand the processes behind the susceptibility of subsistence farmers to crop raiding. 3. Distance to refuge area was the most influential determinant in decreasing crop-raiding risk, with no damage occurring further than 44 km. We obtained consistent models between the three scales with high explanatory power for field damage at village and edge scales (94% and 68% respectively). Household density acted as an obstacle to elephants. Millet patches seemed to provide refuges, and thus promoted damage. 4. The participatory experiment allowed rigorous testing of the efficiency of traditional guarding practices. The presence of people was crucial for guarding efficiency. More innovatively, we demonstrated the role of neighbours and the importance of cohesive guarding as a promising strategy of reducing crop loss at the edge, primarily in areas with a high density of elephant paths. 5. Synthesis and applications. This paper provides evidence that multi-scale multidisciplinary approaches can unravel endogenous processes shaping human–elephant coexistence on the edge of protected areas. We believe that manipulating perceived risks for elephants, through mitigation methods based on the ‘ecology of fear’, and spatial organization of households, could create a ‘soft fence’ which, when combined with adequate incentives to farmers, promotes a better integration of the protected area in its territory.