Showing papers on "Tacit knowledge published in 1996"

Innovative Clusters and the Industry Life Cycle

Abstract: The purpose of this paper is to link the propensity for innovative activity to spatially cluster to the stage of the industry life cycle. The theory of knowledge spillovers, based on the knowledge production function for innovative activity, suggests that geographic proximity matters the most where tacit knowledge plays an important role in the generation of innovative activity. According to the emerging literature of the industry life cycle, tacit knowledge plays the most important role during the early stages of the industry life cycle. Based on a data base that identifies innovative activity for individual states and specific industries for the United States, the empirical evidence suggests that the propensity for innovative activity is shaped by the stage of the industry life cycle. While the generation of new economic knowledge tends to result in a greater propensity for innovative activity to cluster during the early stages of the industry life cycle, innovative activity tends to be more highly dispersed during the mature and declining stages of the life cycle, particularly after controlling for the extent to which the location of production is geographically concentrated. This may suggest that the positive agglomeration effects during the early stages of the industry life cycle become replaced by congestion effects during the latter stages of the industry life cycle.

Tacit Knowledge: The Key to the Strategic Alignment of Intellectual Capital

Abstract: In an environment of shortened business cycles and rapid technological change, the intellectual capital framework represents the primary value‐creation dynamics of the firm. It is this focus on the intellectual that has dubbed our times “the knowledge era.” At the Canadian Imperial Bank of Commerce (CIBC), we have been working for a number of years to understand the concept of intellectual capital. Our work has led us to a definition of intellectual capital, the exploration of the roles of both explicit and tacit knowledge in the three constituent elements of intellectual capital, and, finally, to the development of ways of encouraging value creation in these elements in support of our business strategies.

The Relationship Between Theory and Practice: Back to the Classics

Abstract: During the 20th century, scholarly thinking has been dominated by a strong inequality between theory and practice. Abstract knowledge was considered to be of a higher standing and of more value than concrete skills or the tacit knowledge of good performance. Much of the educational research concentrated on theory formation, both descriptive, for explanation, and prescriptive, for behavioral instructions. Consequently, educationalists in different subjects and professions were confronted with the problem of bridging the gap between theory and practice, a task that never seemed to succeed. During the past few decades, this problem has been analyzed in such different fields as education (Schoen, Fenstermacher), anthropology (Geertz), epistemology (Rorty, Toulmin, Lyotard), and ethics (Nussbaum). In different ways, these scholars developed alternative models of knowledge. For the justification of such alternative models, several authors, especially in the philosophical domain, referred to the classical controversy between Plato's and Aristotle's conceptions of rationality (episteme versus phronesis). In this article, the characteristics of these different types of rationality are discussed, as are the consequences for teacher education of the shift from episteme to phronesis. A revaluation of practical knowledge will be proposed, as well as an alternative view of the relationship between theory and practice.

Human resources as strategic assets: an evolutionary resource‐based theory*

Abstract: The paper proposes an evolutionary approach to strategic human resources This means that, first of all, truly valuable strategic assets are unlikely to result directly from senior management policies Rather, what is truly valuable is the ‘social architecture’ that results from ongoing skill formation activities, forms of spontaneous co-operation, the tacit knowledge that accumulates as the unplanned side-effect of intentional corporate behaviour Thus, corporate prosperity not seldom rests in the social architecture that has emerged slowly and incrementally over time, and may even predate the tenure of current senior management Given the low visibility of such spontaneous co-operation, it is even more likely to be resistant to easy imitation and therefore a valuable strategic asset

Intuition: a review of the literature '

Abstract: This paper is a review of the available literature on intuition and related concepts, including tacit knowledge, insight, and creativity. Definitions of intuition are discussed, and attempts have been made to distinguish among intuition, insight, and creativity. Relationships between intuition and tacit knowledge, and intuition and creativity are explored. Types of intuition as proposed by Vaughan in 1979 and Goldberg in 1989 are described, as are hypotheses about how intuition works. Available empirical research is presented, along with a number of possible avenues for other research.

Envisioning management of information

Abstract: Organizations generate and dissipate information. The main argument of this paper is that managing the information generation-information dissipation-organization cycle is central to the performance of a modern organization. The two key goals in managing the cycle are to ensure that the cycle is positively reinforcing, and that generation and dissipation are balanced. A positively reinforcing cycle will result in a continuously learning, effective organization; a negatively reinforcing cycle, on the other hand, will result in a decadent, ineffective organization. A cycle in which generation and dissipation are balanced is functional; lack of balance manifests itself as dysfunctionalities such as information overload, information in jail, and misinformation. An organization is a cause as well as a consequence of information generation and dissipation. Consequently, the effectiveness of an organization depends upon the semiotics of the stimuli and agents used for information generation and dissipation. A manager who understands the stimuli, agents, and semiotics—tacitly or explicitly—will be more effective than one who does not. The role of a researcher is to explicate the tacit knowledge if it exists, and to develop new knowledge if it does not, and thereby to make the information generation-information dissipation-organization cycle more effective and efficient.

Nothing is Concealed: De-centring Tacit Knowledge and Rules from Social Theory

Abstract: The concept of “tacit knowledge” as the means by which individuals interpret the “rules” of social interaction occupies a central role in all the major contemporary theories of action and social structure. The major reference point for social theorists is Wittgenstein's celebrated discussion of rule-following in the Philosophical Investigations. Focusing on Giddens' incorporation of tacit knowledge and rules into his “theory of structuration”, I argue that Wittgenstein's later work is steadfastly set against the “latent cognitivism” inherent in the idea of tacit knowledge and tacit rules. I also argue that the idea of tacit knowledge and tacit rules is either incoherent or explanatorily vacuous.

The economics calculation debate: lessons for socialists

Abstract: This paper summarizes the standard account of the economic calculation debate, the modern Austrian reinterpretation of the debate based on the centrality of tacit knowledge and discovery, and a neglected third strand in the historical debate, Dobb's insistence on the uncertainty associated with atomistic decision making and the need for ex ante planning. It then draws some lessons for socialists from the debate and considers a possible market socialist response to the modern Austrian challenge. The paper ends by outlining a model of participatory planning that incorporates both the modern Austrians' insight into the importance of tacit knowledge and Dobb's insistence on ex ante coordination. (c) 1996 Academic Press Limited Copyright 1996 by Oxford University Press.

Information Distribution and the Growth of Economically Valuable Knowledge: A Rationale for Technological Infrastructure Policies

Abstract: Science and technology policies in the West in recent years have been directed toward fostering the generation of new knowledge as the basis for commercially exploitable innovations, rather than toward improving the distribution of existing scientific and engineering knowledge and increasing the accessibility of the latest additions to the knowledge stock. This particular policy thrust has been maintained for too long, and there now is a pressing need to restore some balance; in other words, to undertake measures that would raise not only the marginal social rate of return on future R&D investments, but also would increase the social payoffs from past R&D expenditures.

The process and consequences of UBIQUITIFICATION

Abstract: Traditionally a distinction has been made in location theory, between on the one hand the factors of economic importance for the operation of a firm, for which the costs differ significantly between locations, and on the other hand the so-called ubiquitous materials: the ones used in production of a commodity which in practice are available everywhere at more or less the same cost. The paper discusses the process whereby some former important locational factors are actively converted into becoming ubiquities. This process is labelled ’ubiquitification’. The paper argues, that ubiquitification is the outcome of the ongoing internationalisation and of the process whereby former tacit knowledge becomes codified. Ubiquitification undermines the competitiveness of firms in the high-cost areas of the world: When international markets are opened and when knowledge of the latest production technologies and organisational designs are becoming globally available, firms in lowcost regions are becoming increasingly competitive. In a knowledge based economy this infers that firms in the high-cost areas must either shield some valuable pieces of knowledge from becoming globally accessible, or be able to create, acquire, accumulate and utilise codifiable tacit knowledge a little faster than their cost-wise more favourable located competitors. Focusing on the latter process, the paper maintains that most firms learn from close interaction with suppliers, customers and rivals mainly within the nation or the region. This process of knowledge-creation is strongly influenced by the specific resources, structures and institutional endowment of the place of location. The paper concludes that the knowledge created in the interaction between firms and the formal and informal geographical specific institutions contain a decisive element of tacitness, which prevents its swift dissemination to competitors in areas with a more favourable (labour) cost structure. The existence of agglomerations of industries, as well as very stable and dissimilar patterns of specialisation between the economically most developed nations of the world, is seen as an indicator of the importance of localised capabilities in order to overcome the otherwise devastating consequences of ubiquitification. Every locality has incidents of its own which affect in various ways the methods of arrangement of every class of business that is carried on in it...The tendency to variation is the chief cause of progress. (Marshall 1890)

The Foundations of Human-centred Systems

Abstract: What role could and should science and technology research play in meeting new challenges of social vulnerability, environmental and ecological risk, the brittleness of economic, industrial and political orthodoxies, and an increasing dependency on technological systems? These challenges are products of a science and technology rooted in the ‘mechanistic’ paradigm of the ‘one best way’, ‘sameness of science’, and the ‘dream of the exact language’. The human-centred tradition moderates science and technology by mitigating the mechanistic paradigm through concepts such as human purpose, diversity, participation, social responsibility, equality, ethics, creativity and ecology and the environment. It provides theoretical and methodological frameworks for the social and cultural shaping of technologies emphasising human-machine symbiosis, creativity and innovation, participatory and cooperative design, and the tacit dimension of knowledge. These issues are very much part of the human-centred debates whose origins lie in the European human-centred movements of the 1970s, in particular the British LUCAS Plan of socially useful technology, the Scandinavian tradition of participatory democracy, and the German programme on humanisation of work. These debates converged and were consolidated in the European Commission programme on anthropocentric systems (APS) in the 1980s.

The Role of Tacit Knowledge in Judgement and Decision Making.

Abstract: Tacit knowledge is a generally unarticulated, preconscious form of knowledge that forms a basis for human judgment and decision making. Tacit knowledge is acquired primarily through experience, usually observation of and working with "qualified" teachers or mentors. Tacit knowledge may also be described as "practical," that is, derived from experience or practice, and "taken-for-granted." It involves either skill (the ability to do something well) or perceptual ability (gaining knowledge through the senses that would not be obvious to an inexperienced person). It generally requires a background of knowledge or a theoretical (conceptual) framework as a context for understanding. Decisions based on tacit knowledge can be articulated by bringing the tacit knowledge to the level of consciousness; the reasoning involved will be understood by persons of similar background. Such understanding by other professionals separates tacit knowledge from the realm of intuition. Two traditional models of judgment and decision making--the Wilderness Education model and the Priest model--assume that experienced leaders recognize a problem and then think through sequential steps to arrive at an appropriate decision. These models do not recognize that many "decisions" of experienced leaders are not consciously made, but result from "preconscious" processes or habits. An experienced leader's tacit knowledge also figures in anticipation and prevention of problems, instant recognition that a problem exists, and a constant unconscious form of evaluation and decision making. Provides examples from outdoor recreation and adventure situations. (SV) *********************************************************************** Reproductions supplied by EDRS are the best that can be made from the original document. ***********************************************************************

Tacit Knowledge in Military Leadership: Supporting Instrument Development.

Abstract: : Army officers, drawn from three different institutional settings, evaluated tacit-knowledge items to Support development of tests of tacit knowledge for military leadership. Items were identified that differentiated leaders varying in leadership experience (at a level of leadership) or in rated leadership effectiveness. Subject-matter experts also sorted the items into categories of like items. Analyses of the categories identified dimensions that described the organization of the items. Item discrimination and organizational location will be used to select materials for construction of tests of tacit knowledge for each three levels of Army Leadership: platoon leader, company commander, and battalion commander.

Information management for knowledge amplification in virtual enterprise

Abstract: Based on an analysis of Sony's practice, the core of innovation in product development is viewed in the paper as knowledge amplification, which depends on an iterative exploration cycle and information emergence through the cycle by capturing both articulable and tacit knowledge An information system for knowledge amplification in the virtual enterprise is proposed, which includes a symbiotic network for information capturing and sharing through the WWW and multimedia email; an integrated product data manager for creation, evaluation, decision and archiving; an activity scheduler for workflow coordination, and an object-oriented database as shared information server for product, process and organization data

Tacit knowledge: icebergs in collaborative design

Abstract: This workshop provides a forum for discussing experiences and issues related to tacit knowledge [Polanyi 1967] in collaborative systems. Beginning with early CSCW systems, tacit knowledge of work practice, in terms of unspoken assumptions and exceptions, has posed difficult problems for system designers. Analyses by Ehn [1988], Grudin [t994] and others [Bullen and Bennett 1990] show that tacit knowledge continues to play a disturbingly large role in the problems most CSCW systems struggle with. Humans make excellent use of tacit knowledge. Anaphora, ellipses, unstated shared understanding are all used in the service of our collaborative relationships. But when human-human collaboration becomes human-computer-human collaboration, tacit knowledge becomes a problem.

Taking the pith out of reality: a reflexive methodology for psychiatric nursing research

Abstract: Positivist knowledge, although well respected, is only one kind of knowing. Positivist methodology has made a partial contribution to knowledge of psychiatric nursing practice. Knowledge that relates directly to practice is the most sought after by practitioners themselves. Practitioners are in the best position to undertake 'insider' research that allows the process, rather than the outcome, of practice to be explored. A social constructionist approach is congruent with an insider research position. Social constructionism entails more tolerance concerning how we know our world. However, this tolerance breeds difficulty in evaluating research findings. Overall, knowing from practice is problematic. Tacit knowledge acquired through professional socialization is, by definition, difficult to articulate. Social realism deals with this issue by theorizing about mechanisms that would account for practice phenomena. However, social realism may simply represent a dilution of other inquiry positions without offering enough compensating strengths. A new methodology, based on reflexivity, is suggested. The researcher is required to continually reflect on her/his relation to the research process, both in relation to the choice of method and in the gathering and interpretation of data.

WORDMATH: A Computer-Based Environment for Learning Word Problem Solving

Abstract: WORDMATH is a computer-based learning environment designed to teach word problem solving to 9–12 year old students in Singapore primary schools. The students are taught to solve word problem solving using a locally developed approach called model building. Students will draw blocks to represent part-whole relationships depicted in the problem statement, and by drawing such blocks, they can visualize the problem more clearly and are able to make tacit knowledge explicit. The design of WORDMATH is based on some of the teaching methods of the cognitive apprenticeship approach. In this paper, we describe how these teaching methods have been implemented in the current version of the tutor.

Designing for Knowledge Transfer

Abstract: What knowledge can be represented? Is it possible to represent practical knowledge? Is it possible to represent personal knowledge? These issues are concerned with design as a process where design is an example of the formation and transfer of knowledge, as well as with two contrasting ‘traditions’ of knowledge (Gill, 1988; Josefson, 1987, 1988).

Virtual teams, project management processes and the construction industry

Abstract: Process is the "action of going through, a progressive forward movement from one point to another, with the goal of reaching an end point" 1. Project managers in the construction industry tend to regard process as the completion of separate technical tasks to reach an end. What project managers do not ask is, what happens in the process of communicating that contributes to a successful or poor project. The answer remains elusive because project managers expend energy finding better management tools and techniques, not communication processes to help expose and overcome limitations and inefficiencies of projects. Some tools provide a means to examine overall project success, but typically discrete time phases are examined in projects. Deming’s teachings are clear in that improvement in the quality of projects demand improvements in processes. One of the key process improvements that the construction industry needs to make is the area of communication to facilitate the transfer of knowledge between teams and projects. In the future, the industry will find it more difficult to rely on tacit knowledge (on the job know-how) of organizations or individuals in virtual environments.movement from one point to another, with the goal of reaching an end point” 1. Project managers in the construction industry tend to regard process as the completion of separate technical tasks to reach an end. What project managers do not ask is, what happens in the process of communicating that contributes to a successful or poor project. The answer remains elusive because project managers expend energy finding better management tools and techniques, not communication processes to help expose and overcome limitations and inefficiencies of projects. Some tools provide a means to examine overall project success, but typically discrete time phases are examined in projects. Deming’s teachings are clear in that improvement in the quality of projects demand improvements in processes. One of the key process improvements that the construction industry needs to make is the area of communication to facilitate the transfer of knowledge between teams and projects. In the future, the industry will find it more difficult to rely on tacit knowledge (on the job know-how) of organizations or individuals in virtual environments. Global trends to outsource work and downsize employee pools combined with the widespread availability of telecommunications devices continue to push organizations into considering ‘virtual employment’. Despite knowing that additional full-time employees often cause greater negative utility, the construction business continues to lag behind in use of communication technology and in the development of virtual teams. In the future, a shift to virtual teams will be a consequence of the need for high speed communication of new ideas among experts world-wide, for a competitive edge. Challenges are in using telecommunications tools to overcome geographic and psychological distance in managerial and technical communication. This paper discusses the future need for virtual teams in the construction industry. Some useful communication processes and technologies that facilitate a transition to virtual teams are introduced. These include: desktop videoconferencing, public video networks, Group Decision Support Systems, and the Internet. Advances in procurement capability is discussed to show impacts on the construction industry.

Introduction: Universities in the Global Knowledge Economy Triaple Helix of University-Industry-Government Relations

Abstract: The development of academic research capacities carries within itself the seeds of future economic and social development in the form of human capital, tacit knowledge and intellectual property. Channelling knowledge flows into new sources of technological innovation has become an academic task, changing the structure and function of the university. Realizing the benefits of this potential resource occurs through organizational innovations such as technology transfer offices, incubator facilities and research centers with industrial participation. The change in emphasis from a sole concentration on the production and dissemination of knowledge to technology transfer and firm formation places the university in a new alignment with the productive sector.

Supporting reflection and dialogue in a community of machine setters: lessons learned from design and use of a hypermedia type training material

Abstract: The debate about experience-based or tacit knowledge has focused much attention on the limits to formalisation of work process knowledge. A main line of argument has been that, for example, industrial work even with highly advanced technical equipment can only be performed adequately when the worker through experience on the job has gained a feel for the functioning of the machinery and the properties and behaviour of the materials. In this debate links tend to be created between on the one hand formalised-abstracted-verbal knowledge as opposed to on the other hand informalised-concrete-tacit knowledge. We have worked for some years with the design of training materials which at its core have video documentation of best practice as we have found it at work. In this paper we will present and discuss experience with design and use of a hypermedia type training material, SPRING to be used by new machine setters in the spring industry. Based on our own experience we will argue for the relevance of this type of training materials as a means of supporting reflection and dialogue in the community of practitioners.

Transfer of Technology to Small and Medium Enterprises (SMEs): Conceptual Changes and Lessons from the Two Banks of the Rhine

Abstract: Technology transfer is now recognized as a decisive element in business firm strategy. A fuller recognition of the significant role played by the diffusion of innovations in the competitive process has brought about an increase in the scope and diversity of technology transfer in industry. Increasingly, the study of technology transfer (which used to refer only to problems of international north-south transfer) has come to focus on this phenomenon within the firm and in its industrial environment. Using the term in this sense, public authorities in France and other countries have come to recognize the strategic role played by technology transfer, and have established over the last few years a large number of services to promote technology transfer. The Regional centers for Innovation and Technology Transfer (CRITTs) are a leading example of technology transfer services that have been set up in France over the last ten years; others include: services for funding innovation, help for patenting, promotion of innovation (ANVAR — Agence Nationale pour la Valorization de la Recherche), training, and auditing. This often complex set of services — firms find it difficult to navigate through the maze — implies that new service relationships between client firms and the providers of services are constantly being established.

Structuring Cases in a Case-Based Design Aid

Abstract: Architectural designers use a wide variety of reasoning and decision-making aids such as rules, prototypes and specific examples. In this paper we discuss how we have structured cases in a case-based design aid called ARCHIE to allow designers to navigate through the database in a flexible manner yet maintain links between general statements and specific examples. In particular, we focus on the way in which design problems are structured, aimed at helping both novice and experienced designers recognize tacit knowledge.

Popular business media: the missing link in business knowledge diffusion. an exploratory study

Abstract: The diffusion of business knowledge has been a widely debated topic for the last twenty years. The contributions to this debate have built on disciplines such as Epistemology, Social Psychology, and the Philosophy of Science. In these studies, the analysis of the vehicles of diffusion has emerged as an important issue characterizing business knowledge, as the huge number of publications on management has shown. This paper aims to outline the role of popular media in the diffusion of business knowledge. Previous studies have neglected these media, focusing only on academic and institutional channels (business schools and consulting firms). With reference mainly to the contributions of the Sociology of Knowledge and the Sociology of Culture, it is argued that popular media have been the major factor in the diffusion of business knowledge during the last ten years. In particular, popular media have increased the speed at which business practices have been institutionalized by making them known to a wider audience. Moreover, by diffusing business knowledge to laymen, popular media have given economic reasoning a broad-based social legitimacy. The overall outcome of this process has been the popularization of business ideas and business thinkers; the most influential among them have become genuine “maitres a penser”. POPULAR BUSINESS MEDIA: THE MISSING LINK IN BUSINESS KNOWLEDGE DIFFUSION. AN EXPLORATORY STUDY (*) Introduction How is management and organizational knowledge produced and channeled? How heterogeneous is business knowledge? Do its processes of production, transmission and consumption reflect its epistemological plurality? These important questions were for many years explored only occasionally. Today, some of them are at last the subject of abundant research, as the number of scholarly meetings, publications and so on demonstrates. The relevance of these issues has been highlighted by the current debate about the usefulness of a dominant paradigm and scientific consensus for the progress of organizational knowledge and the reputation of the field of management studies (Pfeffer, 1993). Since no discussion of paradigms can be carried out without reference to the social institutions which produce and institutionalize that knowledge, attention to these institutions has increased in recent years. The analysis of the production and diffusion of management knowledge has benefited from theoretical contributions from many disciplines, including anthropology (Geertz), philosophy (Ricoeur), the sociology of culture (Schudson), social history (Chartier), economics (McCloskey), and others. Available studies on administrative knowledge are in many ways based on these approaches, and above all on the sociology of knowledge (Polanyi, Berger and Luckmann). The Neo-Institutional School of Organizational Theory has in recent years provided a basic framework through which the field of organizations has been brought closer to some of the insights provided by the sociology of knowledge. Although the richness of most works on business and organizational knowledge and its process of diffusion and institutionalization is deservedly well recognized, some issues have been surprisingly overlooked. The basic duality of business knowledge –to put it briefly, both a science and an art in action– has not been fully reflected in the number and breadth of studies so far made on its production and transmission. (*) Paper presented at the Workshop “The Production, Diffusion, and Consumption of Management Knowledge in Europe” (EMOT Programme). IESE, Barcelona 26-28 January 1995. For instance, by far the most analyzed channel of transmission of management knowledge is management education and, above all, business schools. Many studies, from those of pioneers in this field (Whitley and Marceau, 1981) to the most influential recent contributions (Engwall, 1992), have underlined the features of business schools, their curricula, their role as elite screening devices, their integration with the more traditional domains of academia, etc. Sometimes, in connection with the topic of business schools and the more scientific ingredient of business knowledge, research has been conducted into the social institution of management academia: gatekeepers, specialized journals, etc. (Sharplin and Mabry, 1985). Even more recently, research is emerging on the business school sector considered from the competitive strategy viewpoint (Enrione et al., 1994). The reasons for this special interest in business schools are obvious: most researchers work in them and –a methodological reason, this one– data are easier to collect than for other carriers of business knowledge. Much less attention has been paid to consulting companies, which are an important carrier and legitimizer of business ideas (and also, increasingly, a producer and “formal” educator). This has, in part, been due to the opacity of the industry and the very “ad hoc” nature of the practices of consulting firms. Other business knowledge transmission media have been almost completely neglected so far, although some scholars (see, for instance, Curran and Stanworth, 1988) have recognized their impact on the diffusion of knowledge. In particular, popular business media –such as popular management books, newspapers, and magazines– have received only scant attention from researchers. Some of the few analyses of this issue have focused on the role of best-selling business books in legitimating managerial practices (Furusten, 1992); others, on the institutionalization and popularization of new management ideas (Alvesson, 1990; Alvarez, 1991). Our aim in this paper is to assess the role of popular business media in the production, diffusion and legitimation of management and organizational knowledge, and to propose an agenda for research on these topics. The nature of business knowledge Although management has been the subject of systematic study for almost a century –Fayol’s “General and Industrial Management” was first published in 1919– the social sources of business knowledge are still very plural, and by no means confined to the channels specialized in formal knowledge. As Nohria and Eccles (1992) remarked in relation to organizational knowledge: (It) comes from everywhere: it comes from a manager’s own experience, from the experiences of others, from books and articles on a variety of topics, from videotapes and live speeches by managers and management scholars, from formal education in business school MBA and executive programs, and, increasingly, from consulting firms. Such a complex set of diffusion mechanisms cannot carry a uniform body of meanings. Therefore, some epistemological differences should emerge from a more careful analysis of the knowledge used in the practice of business activities. A first step in this direction could be Polanyi’s (1962) two basic categories of articulated and tacit knowledge. 2