scispace - formally typeset
Search or ask a question

Showing papers on "Tacit knowledge published in 2011"


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: It is concluded that research should move beyond a narrow focus on the ‘know–do gap’ to cover a richer agenda, including the situation-specific practical wisdom that underpins clinical judgement and the complex links between power and knowledge.
Abstract: The literature on ‘knowledge translation’ presents challenges for the reviewer because different terms have been used to describe the generation, sharing and application of knowledge and different research approaches embrace different philosophical positions on what knowledge is. We present a narrative review of this literature which deliberately sought to highlight rather than resolve tensions between these different framings. Our findings suggest that while ‘translation’ is a widely used metaphor in medicine, it constrains how we conceptualise and study the link between knowledge and practice. The ‘translation’ metaphor has, arguably, led to particular difficulties in the fields of ‘evidence-based management’ and ‘evidence-based policymaking’ – where it seems that knowledge obstinately refuses to be driven unproblematically into practice. Many non-medical disciplines such as philosophy, sociology and organization science conceptualise knowledge very differently, as being (for example) ‘created’, ‘constructed’, ‘embodied’, ‘performed’ and ‘collectively negotiated’ – and also as being value-laden and tending to serve the vested interests of dominant elites. We propose that applying this wider range of metaphors and models would allow us to research the link between knowledge and practice in more creative and critical ways. We conclude that research should move beyond a narrow focus on the ‘know–do gap’ to cover a richer agenda, including: (a) the situation-specific practical wisdom (phronesis) that underpins clinical judgement; (b) the tacit knowledge that is built and shared among practitioners (‘mindlines’); (c) the complex links between power and knowledge; and (d) approaches to facilitating macro-level knowledge partnerships between researchers, practitioners, policymakers and commercial interests.

447 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors compare and contrast how each perspective incorporates the effects of individual actors, tacit knowledge, ambidexterity, and context specificity, and find that the two streams of work have distinct trajectories and strengths, but elements of each can be complementary to developing a more holistic understanding of organizational routines.
Abstract: Organizational routines, repetitive patterns of interdependent organizational actions, have been investigated through the lens of capabilities, rooted in organizational economics, and the lens of practice, grounded in organization theory. The former approach emphasizes the “what” or “why,” while the latter emphasizes the “how.” In this review, we summarize both of these literatures and explore recent empirical studies in each stream, identifying common themes. In particular, we compare and contrast how each perspective incorporates the effects of individual actors, tacit knowledge, ambidexterity, and context specificity. We find that the two streams of work have distinct trajectories and strengths, but elements of each can be complementary to developing a more holistic understanding of organizational routines.

368 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: The research findings indicate that organisational culture types influence tacit knowledge sharing behaviour and that such influences may be positive or negative depending on the culture type.
Abstract: Purpose – This research aimed at investigating the influence of organisational culture types on tacit knowledge sharing behaviour in Malaysian organisations.Design/methodology/approach – Survey data was collected from 362 participants from seven organisations. Multiple regression was used to assess the research model.Findings – The research findings indicate that organisational culture types influence tacit knowledge sharing behaviour and that such influences may be positive or negative depending on the culture type.Research limitations/implications – The study only investigated seven organisations. A larger sample size may be necessary for a study of this nature. Aside from this the ipsative rating scale was not clearly understood by the respondents resulting in scoring errors by some.Practical implications – Knowledge is considered the one and only distinct resource and is crucial for an organisation to sustain its competitive advantage. Determining the organisation's culture type will allow managers to...

343 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: The results indicate that R&D managers should capitalize on the tacit knowledge within their organizations through mentoring (to transfer the lessons that are most closely linked to tacit knowledge), and encouraging the use of metaphors and stories to transfer key NPD knowledge.

280 citations


Journal Article
TL;DR: The authors assert that leaders must acquire practical wisdom, or what Aristotle called phronesis: experiential knowledge that enables people to make ethically sound judgments.
Abstract: In an era of increasing discontinuity, wise leadership has nearly vanished. Many leaders find it difficult to reinvent their corporations rapidly enough to cope with new technologies, demographic shifts, and consumption trends. They can't develop truly global organizations that operate effortlessly across borders. And they find it tough to ensure that their people adhere to values and ethics. The authors assert that leaders must acquire practical wisdom, or what Aristotle called phronesis: experiential knowledge that enables people to make ethically sound judgments. Wise leaders demonstrate six abilities: (i) They make decisions on the basis of what is good for the organization and for society. (2) They quickly grasp the essence of a situation and fathom the nature and meaning of people, things, and events. (3) They provide contexts in which executives and employees can interact to create new meaning. (4) They employ metaphors and stories to convert their experience into tacit knowledge that others can use. (5) They exert political power to bring people together and spur them to act. (6) They use apprenticeship and mentoring to cultivate practical wisdom in orders.

238 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors present an in-depth longitudinal case study examining the processes through which practitioners in two Big 4 professional services firms have attempted to construct sustainability assurance (independent assurance on sustainability reports).
Abstract: This paper presents an in-depth longitudinal case study examining the processes through which practitioners in two Big 4 professional services firms have attempted to construct sustainability assurance (independent assurance on sustainability reports). Power’s (2003, 1999, 1997, 1996) theorization of the way in which new subject areas are made auditable is used to frame the findings. The case reveals the fragile nature of efforts to innovate with assurance and render sustainability reporting auditable. Practitioners are shown to experience considerable discomfort and conflict in their attempts to construct a stable and legitimate knowledge base for assurance practice. Tacit knowledge embedded in highly subjective assessments of evidence is frequently enrolled to make assurance possible in the presence of vague guidance from assurance standards. In light of ongoing practitioner struggles, both firms have publicly acknowledged the limitations of traditional financial audit practice operating alone in the conduct of sustainability assurance. In order to offset these limitations, they propose a coupling of “expert” stakeholder assessments of reporting completeness with traditional audit assessments of data reliability. This assigns part of the responsibility for delivering on a key assurance objective (reporting completeness) to what some practitioners perceive as questionable stakeholder expertise. Overall, the findings suggest that innovation in new assurance practices may be stifled by an exclusive reliance on financial audit training and techniques and by certain constraints imposed by internal professional firm control procedures.

222 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this article, the effects of interorganizational links on radical innovation using a comprehensive framework that integrates three research streams: social capital, the knowledge-based view and innovation was analyzed.

214 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors use the conceptual framework of social capital to study the experiences of 20 first-generation students currently enrolled in doctoral degree programs and highlight those structures and processes that offer tacit knowledge to students about how to pursue higher education.
Abstract: Using the conceptual framework of social capital, this study outlines the experiences of 20 first-generation students currently enrolled in doctoral degree programs. The framework highlights those structures and processes that offer tacit knowledge to students about how to pursue higher education. For students who are the first in their families to attend college, this knowledge is often elusive. Through individual interviews, data were collected to understand student isolation, financial challenges, and sources of support. Implications for institutions are offered.

208 citations


Posted Content
01 Jan 2011
TL;DR: Knowledge management (KM) represents a deliberate and systematic approach to cultivating and sharing an organization's knowledge base as discussed by the authors, which is considered a valuable commodity, embedded in products and in the tacit knowledge of highly mobile individual employees.
Abstract: The ability to manage knowledge has become increasingly important in today’s knowledge economy. Knowledge is considered a valuable commodity, embedded in products and in the tacit knowledge of highly mobile individual employees. Knowledge management (KM) represents a deliberate and systematic approach to cultivating and sharing an organization’s knowledge base. It is a highly multidisciplinary field that encompasses both information technology and intellectual capital. This textbook and professional reference offers a comprehensive overview of the field of KM, providing both a substantive theoretical grounding and a pragmatic approach to applying key concepts. Drawing on ideas, tools, and techniques from such disciplines as sociology, cognitive science, organizational behavior, and information science, the text describes KM theory and practice at the individual, community, and organizational levels. It offers illuminating case studies and vignettes from companies including IBM, Xerox, British Telecommunications, JP Morgan Chase, and Nokia. This second edition has been updated and revised throughout. New material has been added on the information and library science perspectives, taxonomies and knowledge classification, the media richness of the knowledge-sharing channel, e-learning, social networking in KM contexts, strategy tools, results-based outcome assessments, knowledge continuity and organizational learning models, KM job descriptions, copyleft and Creative Commons, and other topics. New case studies and vignettes have been added; and the references and glossary have been updated and expanded.

205 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this article, the authors systematically drew on the tacit knowledge of expert sustainability practitioners to identify potential governance characteristics of sustainable urban water management, which strongly suggest that sustainability practitioners see the need for hybrid governance arrangements at a practical and operational level.
Abstract: Shifting from traditional, large, centralised infrastructure to alternative, distributed technologies is widely accepted as essential for enabling sustainable water management. Despite technical advances in sustainable urban water management over recent decades, the shift from traditional to more sustainable approaches remains slow. Current research on socio-institutional barriers suggests this poor implementation relates to a limited understanding of the different forms of governance needed to support alternative approaches, rather than the potential ineffectiveness of the technologies and practices. While some governance scholars express preferences for ideal hierarchical, market or network governance approaches, others suggest a hybrid of these approaches may be more appropriate for achieving sustainability. Currently, there is limited commentary about the potential characteristics of sustainable urban water governance. To extend the current scholarship, this paper systematically draws on the tacit knowledge of expert sustainability practitioners to identify potential governance characteristics of sustainable urban water management. In comparison with current urban water scholarship, which is supportive of a network governance approach at a conceptual level, the results strongly suggest that sustainability practitioners see the need for hybrid governance arrangements at a practical and operational level. These hybrid arrangements tended to comprise network and hierarchical approaches with market governance instruments. These insights from practitioners to help identify future research needs, focused on examining interaction among governance approaches at a variety of scales and locations.

190 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: This study explores the impact of selected socio‐cultural factors, viz. trust, guanxi orientation and face, on the intention to share explicit and tacit knowledge in Chinese firms and indicates that affect‐based trust has a significant effect on both tacit and explicit knowledge.
Abstract: Knowledge sharing is recognised as one of the most critical components of knowledge management. Successful and efficient knowledge sharing could directly facilitate knowledge creation and so help a firm to maintain its competitive advantage. Consequently, identifying which factors could encourage or inhibit people to share knowledge is potentially of great value. In this study, we explore the impact of selected socio-cultural factors, viz. trust, guanxi orientation and face, on the intention to share explicit and tacit knowledge in Chinese firms. Two hundred and four employees from Chinese organisations were surveyed on their knowledge-sharing practices. Our findings indicate that while cognition-based trust has no significant effect on the intention to share either tacit or explicit knowledge, affect-based trust has a significant effect on both. Meanwhile, face-gaining behaviours have a positive effect, while face-saving behaviours have a negative effect on the intention to share knowledge. Finally, guanxi orientation also has a strong impact on knowledge sharing. The implications of these findings for organisations and their knowledge management initiatives are discussed.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this article, the authors assess under which conditions tacit knowledge transfer contributes to the performance of academic spin-offs using an inductive case study approach and find that tacit knowledge is most effectively transferred when a substantial part of the original research team joins the new venture as founders.
Abstract: The increased pressure put on public research institutes to commercialize their research results has given rise to an increased academic interest in technology transfer. We assess under which conditions tacit knowledge transfer contributes to the performance of academic spin-offs. Using an inductive case study approach, our evidence suggests that tacit knowledge is most effectively transferred when a substantial part of the original research team joins the new venture as founders. Commercial expertise and mindset are also required in the team on the condition that the cognitive distance between the scientific researchers and the person responsible for commercialization is not too large.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this article, the authors present an in-depth longitudinal case study examining the processes through which practitioners in two Big 4 professional services firms have attempted to construct sustainability assurance (independent assurance on sustainability reports).
Abstract: This paper presents an in-depth longitudinal case study examining the processes through which practitioners in two Big 4 professional services firms have attempted to construct sustainability assurance (independent assurance on sustainability reports). Power’s (1996, 1997, 1999, 2003) theorization of the way in which new subject areas are made auditable is used to frame the findings. The case analysis reveals the fragile nature of efforts to innovate with sustainability assurance and render sustainability reporting auditable. It suggests that innovation in new assurance practices may be constrained by an over-reliance on traditional financial audit training and techniques and certain internal professional services firm control procedures. Practitioners are shown to have experienced considerable discomfort in their attempts to construct a stable and legitimate knowledge base for assurance practice. Tacit knowledge embedded in highly subjective assessments of evidence has been frequently enrolled to make assurance possible in the presence of vague guidance from assurance standards. In light of ongoing practitioner struggles, both firms have publicly acknowledged the limitations of traditional financial audit practice operating alone in the conduct of sustainability assurance. In order to offset these limitations, they have proposed a coupling of ‘‘expert’’ stakeholder assessments of reporting completeness with traditional audit assessments of data reliability. This assigns part of the responsibility for delivering on a key assurance objective (reporting completeness) to what many practitioners perceive as questionable stakeholder expertise. The findings extend prior research highlighting the trial and error nature of the processes through which accountants seek to develop their presence in new markets for their expertise. They also question the extent to which the core aims being espoused for sustainability assurance can be substantively aligned with the operational capabilities available within Big 4 professional services firms.

Proceedings ArticleDOI
04 Jan 2011
TL;DR: The results of the five-month study found that Facebook provides an easy- to-use and familiar technology for learners to leverage social networking to share and generate tacit knowledge amongst each other within the small group environment.
Abstract: In this paper we explore the possibility of using Web 2.0 technology, specifically social networking technology, to support a community of practice in a graduate-level classroom setting in order to enhance learning. For our experiment, we utilized Facebook as a learning resource for an MIS course for learners to share prior knowledge and experience. We present the results of our five-month study, and found that Facebook provides an easy- to-use and familiar technology for learners to leverage social networking to share and generate tacit knowledge amongst each other within the small group environment.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: The research shows that R&D professionals have different views and practices regarding engaging in knowledge sharing, which reveals that knowledge sharing is multi‐faceted and that one standard for R &D professionals does not exist.
Abstract: Purpose – Because selling innovative products is crucial to its livelihood, the pharmaceutical industry has a fundamental need to share knowledge to stimulate the process of knowledge creation. This study seeks to explore knowledge‐sharing enablers and barriers in pharmaceutical R&D.Design/methodology/approach – A case study was carried out in a pharmaceutical company in Denmark. R&D professionals were asked to identify organizational enablers and barriers to knowledge sharing. Their accounts were processed as text during workshops. Data were condensed thematically. The analysis was combined with the conceptualization of tacit and explicit knowledge as proposed by Nonaka and Takeuchi.Findings – The research shows that R&D professionals have different views and practices regarding engaging in knowledge sharing. This reveals that knowledge sharing is multi‐faceted and that one standard for R&D professionals does not exist. The enablers identified recognized the use of tacit knowledge. The existence of enabl...

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this article, a view of embodied representations that is alternative to both symbolic/linguistic approaches and purely sensorimotor views of cognition is proposed, and can account for procedural and declarative knowledge manipulation.
Abstract: We propose a view of embodied representations that is alternative to both symbolic/linguistic approaches and purely sensorimotor views of cognition, and can account for procedural and declarative knowledge manipulation In accordance with recent evidence in cognitive neuroscience and psychology, we argue that anticipatory and simulative mechanisms, which arose during evolution for action control and not for cognition, determined the first form of representational content and were exapted for increasingly sophisticated cognitive uses In particular, procedural and declarative forms of knowledge can be explained, respectively, in terms of on-line sensorimotor anticipation and off-line simulations of potential actions, which can give access to tacit knowledge and make it explicit That is, mechanisms that evolved for the on-line prediction of the consequences of one's own actions (ie forward models) determine a (procedural) form of representation, and became exapted for off-line use They can therefore be used to produce (declarative) knowledge of the world, by running a simulation of the action that would produce the relevant information We conclude by discussing how embodied representations afford a form of internal manipulation that can be described as internalized situated action

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this paper, a theoretical analysis of knowledge creation through networking, specifically drawing upon the example of female senior managers as potential knowledge creators, is presented, highlighting the importance of differentiating between formal and informal networks and shows that senior women have limited access to and are often excluded from strategic informal networks, such as the old boys' network.
Abstract: This article offers a theoretical analysis of knowledge creation through networking, specifically drawing upon the example of female senior managers as potential knowledge creators. The article constructs a model of networks and their corresponding knowledge and organizational types. It highlights the importance of differentiating between formal and informal networks and shows that senior women have limited access to and are often excluded from strategic informal networks, such as the old boys' network. Restricted network access denies involvement in the exchange and creation of tacit knowledge and ultimately, organizational resources and power. The strength of network ties may also impact upon the quality of knowledge exchanged within networks, its level of complexity and strategic relevance. The article contributes to the debate on the gendering of the knowledge economy and suggests a theoretical approach to understanding women's inclusion and exclusion from knowledge creation in organizations. © 2010 Blackwell Publishing Ltd.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: This pilot study demonstrated that front-line public health workers draw upon both tacit knowledge and explicit knowledge in their everyday lived reality and indicates a need to broaden the scope of knowledge translation to include other forms of knowledge beyond explicit knowledge acquired through research.
Abstract: All sectors in health care are being asked to focus on the knowledge-to-practice gap, or knowledge translation, to increase service effectiveness. A social interaction approach to knowledge translation assumes that research evidence becomes integrated with previously held knowledge, and practitioners build on and co-create knowledge through mutual interactions. Knowledge translation strategies for public health have not provided anticipated positive changes in evidence-based practice, possibly due in part to a narrow conceptualization of knowledge. More work is needed to understand the role of tacit knowledge in decision-making and practice. This pilot study examined how health practitioners applied tacit knowledge in public health program planning and implementation.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: This paper examined the tacit knowledge of trainee and experienced teachers in relation to various problematic interpersonal aspects of school life and found that experience appeared to be related to the capacity to identify "bad" responses, but there was little difference in relation with the identification of "good" responses.
Abstract: Skilled interpersonal relations are crucial for effective teaching and learning but much professional knowledge here is tacit and thus not easily communicated. This article presents the results of a study that examined the tacit knowledge of trainee and experienced teachers in relation to various problematic interpersonal aspects of school life. Trainee (n = 501) and experienced (n = 163) teachers in secondary schools were presented with a series of hypothetical vignettes and asked to rate each of 128 potential response options. Trainees completed the survey at the beginning and end of their professional training year. It was found that experience appeared to be related to the capacity to identify ‘bad’ responses, but there was little difference in relation to the identification of ‘good’ responses. Further differences between novice and experienced teachers in relation to preferred strategies are reported. Implications for teacher education and for future research are identified and discussed.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: This article investigated the moderating role of communities of practice and organizational climate on the relationship between the proficiency of dispersed collaboration and the front end of innovation performance, and found that supportiveness of climate has a significant direct effect on front-end innovation performance.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors assess the effects of leadership, Ba (shared context in motion), organizational culture, organizational control, and work style on knowledge management in terms of the SECI process of socialization, externalization, combination and internalization.
Abstract: Knowledge has been long cited as a strategic asset and a source of competitive advantage for organizations. However, the creation of knowledge is a complex process that is influenced by several factors beyond the typical practice of knowledge management (KM). In this research, we assess the effects of leadership, Ba (shared context in motion), organizational culture, organizational control, and work style on KM defined in terms of the SECI process of socialization, externalization, combination, and internalization. On the basis of data gathered from a questionnaire survey of a Japanese pharmaceutical company and its subsidiaries in the United States, France, and China, we compare how the aforementioned organizational factors influence the processes of KM in these organizations. The results show that organizational factors affect KM practices differently in each of the targeted countries, and suggest that KM activities need to be tailored to the organizational idiosyncrasies of each local office, without betraying the global vision of the corporation.

01 Jan 2011
TL;DR: In this article, the authors develop a model that explicates how an individual's cultural intelligence will affect the relationship between an international assignment experience and the development of a global mindset; and, they suggest that a moderator must play a role in the transformation of the international experience into a global attitude.
Abstract: A global mindset is argued to be critical for managers to develop their firms’ current and future international success. An international assignment is considered to be one of the most powerful means of developing a global mindset. The skill sets, cognitive complexity, and expanded networks resulting from an international assignment provide expatriates with unique and often tacit knowledge. Yet, every overseas assignment is not successful and not every foreign assignment results in the expatriate gaining a broadened perspective and enhanced skill sets. We develop a model that explicates how an individual’s cultural intelligence will affect the relationship between an international assignment experience and the development of a global mindset; and, we suggest that a moderator – cultural intelligence – must play a role in the transformation of the international experience into a global mindset.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: A derivation of the functional requirements was carried out to support and guide the selection of the technological infrastructure of a dedicated farm management information system (FMIS) and showed the complexity of the decision making process within the domain of field operations.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: The Lean Enablers for Systems Engineering is a comprehensive checklist of nonmandatory practices and recommendations formulated as “do's” and “don't's" of SE, and containing tacit knowledge on how to prepare for, plan, execute, and practice SE and EM using Lean Thinking.
Abstract: Systems Engineering (SE) is regarded as a sound practice but not always delivered effectively, as documented in recent NASA, GAO, and DoD studies. Lean Thinking is the holistic work system credited for the extraordinary rise of Toyota to the most profitable and the largest auto company in the world. Lean Thinking has been successfully applied in other work fields such as general manufacturing, aerospace, healthcare, and service industries. The emerging field of Lean Systems Engineering (LSE) is the application of Lean principles, practices, and tools to SE and to the related aspects of enterprise management (EM) in order to enhance the delivery of value (which is defined as flawless delivery of product or mission with satisfaction of all stakeholders) while reducing waste. This paper contains four parts: (1) historical background of the new field of LSE and a review of the fundamental concepts of Lean Thinking; (2) the development process of a new product called “Lean Enablers for Systems Engineering”; (3) a list of the Enablers organized into six Lean principles; (4) summary and conclusions. The Lean Enablers for Systems Engineering is a comprehensive checklist of nonmandatory practices and recommendations formulated as “do's” and “don't's” of SE, and containing tacit knowledge (collective wisdom) on how to prepare for, plan, execute, and practice SE and EM using Lean Thinking. Each enabler has the potential to enhance program value and reduce waste. The Enablers are formulated as a web-based addendum to the current SE Handbook published by the International Council for Systems Engineering (INCOSE), and do not repeat the practices made therein, which are regarded as sound. They should be an equally valuable addendum to other SE handbooks such as NASA, DoD, or company manuals. The enablers' development followed a classical process: Concept, Alpha, Beta, Prototype, and Version 1.0. This paper reports on Version 1.0 of the enablers, which are regarded as mature enough for dissemination, but which are intended to be a living online document to be continuously improved by interested practitioners as new knowledge and experience are acquired. The enablers were evaluated by surveys in the Beta and Prototype phases. The Prototype version has also been benchmarked with recent NASA and GAO studies. This project has been carried out by two core teams involving 14 volunteers from the LSE Working Group of INCOSE. The teams included representatives from industry, academia, and governments from United States, Israel, and the United Kingdom, with cooperation from the LSE Working Group membership at large. © 2010 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Syst Eng 14: 29–55, 2011

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: A commentary on how definitions and applications of knowledge translation might differ by setting and focus is intended to stimulate further discussion in the area of community-based knowledge translation.
Abstract: Background Knowledge translation is an interactive process of knowledge exchange between health researchers and knowledge users. Given that the health system is broad in scope, it is important to reflect on how definitions and applications of knowledge translation might differ by setting and focus. Community-based organizations and their practitioners share common characteristics related to their setting, the evidence used in this setting, and anticipated outcomes that are not, in our experience, satisfactorily reflected in current knowledge translation approaches, frameworks, or tools.

Journal Article
TL;DR: Sauve et al. as discussed by the authors found that knowledge workers are pivotal to effective change management and organizational sustainability, and some ways to motivate and retain knowledge workers include: providing challenging and meaningful work, enabling learning and career development opportunities, ensuring adequate resources, recognizing contributions, and creating a supportive environment.
Abstract: With the exponential growth of information and the increasingly rapid rate of change, one of the most valuable resources in organizations today is knowledge workers. These individuals are pivotal to effective change management and organizational sustainability. Knowledge workers process, synthesize and generate knowledge in order to problem-solve and innovate in organizations. Characterized by a high level of education, superior interpersonal communications skills, and exceptional information processing abilities, these employees are generally more concerned with adding value to the organization than earning a high salary. Based on the research, some ways to motivate and retain knowledge workers include: providing challenging and meaningful work, enabling learning and career development opportunities, ensuring adequate resources, recognizing contributions, and creating a supportive environment. Introduction Around the world the workforce is rapidly changing, and dynamics are altering how organizations perceive the acquisition, use and generation of knowledge. Workplaces have evolved from pie-industrial apprenticeships to large scale, specialized, and segmented organizations, with defined employee roles and responsibilities (Sauve, 2007). In the information age, knowledge has become the critical raw material and source for creating value (O'Driscoll, 2003; Drucker, 1992). Emphasis has shifted away from physical capital towards human capital. The spotlight is on knowledge workers (KWs), who are seen as the height of competitive advantage through continuous learning and innovation. Ironically, the rhetoric of many organizations has long been that 'people are our most valued asset' , yet ineffective employee learning investments or supports, poor managerial practice and unsupportive work environments persist. A new paradigm is needed that recognizes knowledge workers as valued human assets, not expendable cost centres (Vora, 2004). Optimizing KW performance is the secret ingrethent needed for modern organizational success. Today 's organizations must accept that no program or activity continues for long without eventual redesign or modification to prevent obsolescence (Drucker & Maciariello, 2004). In the information age, workplaces must embrace Senge's concept of learning organizations ... where people continually expand their capacity to create the results they truly desire, where new and expansive patterns of thinking are nurtured, where collective aspiration is set free, and where people are continually learning how to learn together (Senge, 1990: 3). Interestingly, varied individual responses to a situation are a distinguishing trait between KWs. A knowledge worker (KW) can " . . .understand a body of knowledge and generate new information from that understanding. . . .:" (Kidd, 1994: 186). Drucker (1973) referred to this primary KW characteristic as a 'diversity of outputs' since they are internally sourced, based on each person's knowledge, skill set and prior experience. Nevertheless, a knowledge worker's thinking changes frequently through his career, based on inputs and external changes. Although electronic storage and retrieval tools have mushroomed as companions, they are not heavily relied upon by KWs. Globalization, the proliferation of technology, workforce diversity, and the knowledge society have sparked a wave of learning, training and workplace education in organizations from all sectors. Complex workplace interactions now typically "... require people to regularly deal with ambiguity and solve problems based on experience or tacit knowledge" (Sauve, 2007: 1). Additionally, Davenport (2005) found that the fastestgrowing organizations with the highest revenue also performed the most innovative knowledge work. He cites Microsoft as "...one of the most profitable organizations in the history of the planet ..... Growth industries [like ICT] generally tend to be those with a high proportion of knowledge workers" (DLS Group Ine, 2007: 6). …

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this article, the authors investigate completed R&D cooperation projects of 376 German professors of the chemical and biological sciences and identify significant group differences regarding trust, the interdependency between partners, the frequency of communication and the closeness of partners.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this paper, a model of the micro-process of knowledge acquisition, dissemination, and application in the networks of alliances that have become important sources of external knowledge for multinational firms is developed.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors use knowledge-based theory to develop and test a model of client-vendor knowledge transfer at the level of an individual offshore information systems engineer, and find that knowledge transfer to the offshore vendor engineer is positively associated with formal training and client embedment.
Abstract: We use knowledge-based theory to develop and test a model of client–vendor knowledge transfer at the level of the individual offshore information systems engineer. We define knowledge transfer in this context in terms of mechanisms by which an offshore engineer employed by a vendor can (a) gain understanding of their onshore client; and (b) utilize their knowledge for the benefit of the client. Over large geographic, cultural and institutional distances, effective knowledge transfer is difficult to achieve, although it is central to the success of many offshore outsourcing contracts. Our empirical test consists of a survey of vendor software engineers physically located in India but working on development projects for clients in Europe and the United States. The findings support predictions regarding engineer exposure to explicit and tacit knowledge: We find client–vendor knowledge transfer to the offshore vendor engineer to be positively associated with formal training and client embedment. We also test whether an offshore vendor engineer's inappropriate reliance on informal discussions in the offshore location hinders effective client–vendor knowledge transfer. Our result for this is mixed. Finally, we show differences between offshore engineers who have had previous onshore experience and those who have not. Client embedment is a potent driver of knowledge transfer when the offshore engineer has had previous onshore placement, while it acts to reduce inappropriate reliance on informal discussions for those that have not had an onshore placement.

Book ChapterDOI
01 May 2011
TL;DR: A particular form of practical know-how that figures prominently in research on practical intelligence is tacit knowledge, which is practical knowledge that usually is not openly expressed or taught directly.
Abstract: Cross-cultural studies from a large number of societies provide examples of practical intelligence manifested as practical know-how A particular form of practical know-how that figures prominently in research on practical intelligence is tacit knowledge Tacit knowledge is practical knowledge that usually is not openly expressed or taught directly Although practical intelligence is related to performance in a variety of domains, studies in which both practical intelligence, primarily various measures of tacit knowledge, and IQ have been measured demonstrate that practical intelligence is distinct from fluid and crystallized intelligence Sternberg has been the most forceful proponent of the concept of practical intelligence as one of three, distinct form of intelligence Horn and Masunaga provide an account of the merging of a theory of intelligence with a theory of expertise The increasingly influential alternative is embodied or grounded cognition