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Showing papers on "Task analysis published in 1980"


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this article, the capability of the follower for self-management is discussed, where individuals manage their own behaviors by setting personal standards, evaluating their performance in terms of these standards, and self-administering consequences based on their self-evaluations.
Abstract: Kerr [1976] has coined the term “substitutes for leaders hip” in reference to nonleader sources of task structure and direction. We focus on one such substitute, the capability of the follower for self-management Individuals manage their own behaviors by setting personal standards, evaluating their performance in terms of these standards, and by self-administering consequences based on their self-evaluations. Specific techniques such as self-observation, goal specification, cueing strategies, incentive modification, and rehearsal can be used to exercise self-management behavior. Organizational leaders can help subordinates develop self-management skills.

644 citations


01 Jan 1980
TL;DR: This thesis is concerned with investigating the feasibility of constructing a general purpose learning system around a particular class of domain independent methods called genetic algorithms, and a specific learning system organization, LS-1, is proposed.
Abstract: A learning system is a system that improves its performance with respect to a given task domain over time through its interactions with the task environment. The mechanisms by which such a system manipulates its knowledge about the task environment in response to these interactions constitute the system's "methods of learning". In constructing an artificial learning system, the particular methods employed determine, to a large extent, the ultimate generality of the system. A learning system capable of functioning in a variety of task domains necessarily requires the presence of domain independent methods of learning. This thesis is concerned with investigating the feasibility of constructing a general purpose learning system around a particular class of domain independent methods called genetic algorithms. To this end, a specific learning system organization, LS-1, is proposed. In further specifying the design, a production system language amenable to manipulation by a genetic algorithm is defined as the system's representation of knowledge, organized as a domain independent framework into which task specific primitives can be injected. The classical genetic algorithms are then modified to suit the specific characteristics of the defined knowledge structure representation. A formal analysis of the search conducted by such a revised genetic algorithm through the space of possible production system programs is performed, demonstrating that it possesses properties analogous to those exhibited by classical genetic algorithms and establishing a sound theoretical foundation for LS-1. Finally, a critic to judge the "relative worth" of a production system program as a potential solution to the task at hand is specified, incorporating both domain independent and task specific sources of judgmental information. As a demonstration of the feasibility of the design an LS-1 implementation is tested in two distinct and unrelated task domains, each the domain of a related effort in learning system construction. Specifically, the system is faced with (1) a simple maze walk problem and (2) the problem of making the bet decision in draw poker. Initialized in each test with randomly generated production system programs, the LS-1 implementation is shown to rapidly converge on high performance knowledge structures in both task domains, providing empirical evidence of the effectiveness of a genetic algorithm as a general purpose learning mechanism.

580 citations



Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this paper, the steering wheel reversal rate (SRR) and driving task demand are discussed in terms of a set of theoretical assumptions proposed by W. A. Macdonald and E. R. Hoffmann (1978), and it is argued that whether the relationship is positive or negative depends on the level of task difficulty relative to the driver's capacity to cope with it.
Abstract: Previous literature and some new data on the relationship between steering wheel reversal rate (SRR) and driving task demand are discussed in terms of a set of theoretical assumptions proposed by W. A. Macdonald and E. R. Hoffmann (1978). SRR is generally expected to increase with increasing task demand; however, several recent studies found a significant decrease in SRR. It is argued that whether the relationship is positive or negative depends on the level of task difficulty relative to the driver's capacity to cope with it.

146 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
01 May 1980
TL;DR: A model of the human decisionmaker is compared to experimental results for human subjects performing such a task at a computer-graphics terminal and indicates a reasonable fit, under various model parameters and task conditions, and suggest hypotheses about the nature of human "planning ahead" and mental work load.
Abstract: A paradigm is developed for the problem of allocating in time a single resource to multiple simultaneous task demands which appear randomly, last for various periods, and offer varying rewards for service. Based upon a dynamic optimizing algorithm plus an estimator, and including response time and future discounting constraints, a model of the human decisionmaker is compared to experimental results for human subjects performing such a task at a computer-graphics terminal. Results indicate a reasonable fit, under various model parameters and task conditions, and suggest interesng hypotheses about the nature of human "planning ahead" and mental work load.

131 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: This paper examined the extent to which variations in the perceptions of job characteristics may be associated, not with objective task characteristics, but with perceptual biases refl ecting the perception of the task characteristics.
Abstract: The study reported here examines the extent to which variations in the perceptions of job characteristics may be associated, not with objective task characteristics, but with perceptual biases refl...

123 citations



Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this article, a model predicting relationships among individual, task design, and leader behavior variables was examined for 171 employees of a large manufacturing firm, and the results revealed significa...
Abstract: A model predicting relationships among individual, task design, and leader behavior variables was examined for 171 employees of a large manufacturing firm. Correlational analyses revealed significa...

84 citations



Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this paper, the moderating effect of task structure from the Path-Goal leadership theory was tested in a large public utility, and no support was found for the moderation effect.
Abstract: Several hypotheses on the moderating effect of task structure from Path-Goal leadership theory were tested in a large public utility. No support was found for the moderating effect of task structure, despite multiple analyses and large and statistically significant differences in moderator variables: instrumental leadership obtained few significant correlations with criteria regardless of task structure, and supportive leadership was strongly related to criteria at all levels of task structure. Based on these results and theoretical considerations, suggestions are made for modification of the manner in which the theory has generally been tested, and for attention to specific testing of several assumptions upon which the theory is based.

54 citations



Journal ArticleDOI
Abstract: The causes and consequences of two types of uncertainty (environmental and behavioral) were investigated in a simulated job environment Employees worked with a structuring or considerate leader, o

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: This article presents a framework for analyzing what it means to understand an intellectual skill, and presents a classification system for analyzing the types of knowledge that are associated with skills concerning functional relations such as Ohm's Law.
Abstract: This article presents a framework for analyzing what it means to understand an intellectual skill. Building on the task analysis framework of Gagne and others, we suggest that many different types of knowledge may be associated with the core skills and subskills involved in a learning hierarchy. Second, we suggest that certain types of associated knowledge may lead to much greater understanding of the skill than will other types—an outcome we call skill plus productive knowledge. Then we present a classification system for analyzing the types of knowledge that are associated with skills concerning functional relations such as Ohm's Law. Finally, we suggest instructional prescriptions for developing learning outcomes that include appropriate associated knowledge. The article is intended as a framework for future research on understanding skills. The general direction of such research is outlined.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: A study designed to asses the cross-sample stability of the job characteristics inventory (JCI) finds that the JCI could have utility for task design research.
Abstract: The article discusses a study designed to asses the cross-sample stability of the job characteristics inventory (JCI). According to the author, the JCI could have utility for task design research. ...

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: One of man's essential roles in the operation of man-computer systems is to cope adaptively with the openness in the system and that one of the problems of current systems is that they infer a closed model of the task that may inhibit the user in his efforts to provide an adaptive contribution.
Abstract: It is argued that the form of dialogue required in man-computer interaction is dependent upon the nature of the task and the allocation for task functions between man and computer. The paper examines the design implications of two task variables; task openness and task frequency. It concludes that one of man's essential roles in the operation of man-computer systems is to cope adaptively with the openness in the system and that one of the problems of current systems is that they infer a closed model of the task that may inhibit the user in his efforts to provide an adaptive contribution. The paper considers the kinds of constrained languages appropriate for closed tasks and the command languages necessary to make flexible and powerful use of computer facilities when the task is open. It raises the dilemma of the infrequent user with open-ended tasks who needs a complex formal language but is unwilling or unable to master it. A number of solutions are offered to this dilemma. Finally, a plea is made for th...

Journal ArticleDOI

Journal ArticleDOI
R B Stammers1
TL;DR: The predicted superiority of the whole method in the high complexity task was only short lived and disappeared with further practice, and this prediction was upheld only with later changeover to whole task performance.
Abstract: Whole and part methods were compared to test Naylor's hypothesis that, in a task of high organization, whole methods should become more efficient with increased complexity. Task complexity was varied by having two levels of display-control relationship. The part versus whole comparisons were made in two conditions, one requiring early changeover, the other later changeover to whole task practice. In the early changeover condition no significant differences were found between part and whole methods at either level of complexity. With later changeover, on the other hand, pure part training was inferior to whole training in the high complexity task. This result was present only in the first block of whole practice. No differences were found with the low complexity task. The experiment offers limited support for Naylor's hypothesis. The predicted superiority of the whole method in the high complexity task was only short lived and disappeared with further practice. Furthermore, this prediction was upheld only with later changeover to whole task performance.

DOI
01 Jan 1980
TL;DR: Twenty four in therapy cl ient performances were analysed in order to describe patterns related to confl ict resolution, testing the main hypothesis, that resolution events exhibit specif ic phase related behaviors that are not evident in non-resolution events.
Abstract: Twenty four in therapy cl ient performances were analysed in order to describe patterns related to confl ict resolution. Twelve Gestalt events in which resolution was achieved were compared with twelve nonresolution events. Both groups, resolved and unresolved, were analyzed using three measures,-1) Experiencing scale; 2) Structural Analysis of Social Behavior, and 3) Vocal Quality Scale. Using these measures, the groups were divided into the three phases of confl ict resolution--opposition, merging and resolution. In Gestalt, therapy, the cl ient engages in a dialogue with himself to explore the two sides of the conf l ic t . He usualy moves from one chair to another, these chairs are known as the "experiencing" and "other" chair. In this study each chair was analyzed independently. The main hypothesis, that resolution events exhibit specif ic phase related behaviors that are not evident in non-resolution events, was tested using a number of comparisons. These comparisons between groups, between phases and between the two chairs indicate that the two groups are different and that there are three identif iable phases in a resolution event. The pattern of resolution begins with the two chairs in the opposition phase rejecting each other. This is indicated by a difference in level of Experiencing and uncooperative interaction as measured by S.A.S.B. The merging phase is when the two chairs begin to engage in productive dialogue. The other chair "softens" toward the experiencing chair , as indicated by a change in the vocal quality at the merging point. Also during this phase, the level of experiencing of the other chair increases to the level of the experiencing chair. The resolution ph-ase is identif ied by the lack of difference between the two chairs; they apparently come together and function as one.


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: The purpose of the paper is to chart the difficulties in which the authors found themselves and to make the task easier for others who may wish to follow their path.
Abstract: This paper describes (i) how we rewrote a piece of technical text to make it easier to understand, and (ii) how we attempted to measure our success at this task. The purpose of the paper is to chart the difficulties in which we found ourselves and to make the task easier for others who may wish to follow our path.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: For example, this article found that three consecutive five-week treatment conditions during the naturalistic setting in a half-day laboratory nursery school program in a middle and upper-class three-and four-year-old children significantly increased their scores on two verbal problem-solving tasks following exposure to high-level cognitive questioning.
Abstract: Middle- and upper-class three- and four-year-old children were exposed to three consecutive five-week treatment conditions during the naturalistic setting in a half-day laboratory nursery school program. During the first treatment condition, the teacher emphasized low-level cognitive questions; during the second, high-level cognitive questions; and during third, low- level cognitive questions. The children significantly increased their scores on two verbal problem-solving tasks following exposure to high-level cognitive questioning and significantly decreased their scores on the same tasks following exposure to low-level cognitive questioning.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors review recent advances in task-analytic techniques for studying cognitive development, which involves breaking down problems into component operations and the task analysis process, and present a review of task-analysis techniques for cognitive development.
Abstract: The purpose of this article is to review recent advances in task-analytic techniques for studying cognitive development. Task analysis involves breaking down problems into component operations and the


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this article, a therapeutic procedure designed to prescribe, in metaphorical form, the family's troublesome behavior pattern is presented, with particular attention paid to using a compliment to precede delivering a task assignment as a method of increasing the likelihood that the family will perform the task, and thus change will be promoted.
Abstract: This article presents a therapeutic procedure designed to prescribe, in metaphorical form, the family's troublesome behavior pattern. Particular attention is paid to using a compliment to precede delivering a task assignment as a method of increasing the likelihood that the family will perform the task, and thus change will be promoted. A case example is used to illustrate the use of this procedure to help make change less painful.


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: The mathematical model constructed for the decision analysis was the key element in accomplishing these tasks, and several of the component models are described in some detail.
Abstract: This paper describes the process and content of a major decision analysis performed for a Xerox corporate task force. The decision, which crossed many traditional organizational boundaries, concerned whether new manufacturing facilities should be constructed to produce consumables for a new Xerox product; and if so, when. One of our roles as analysts for the task force was to serve as the communication channel to the many organizations involved in the decision. The paper focuses on the process by which we were able to use decision analysis to resolve the many conflicting issues surrounding the problem. The mathematical model constructed for the decision analysis was the key element in accomplishing these tasks, and several of the component models are described in some detail. Several interesting aspects of the sensitivity analysis are outlined, including a scenario analysis that eliminated the need for a detailed treatment of uncertainty. The final recommendations to the task force, which were accepted, a...


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: The view that product and process teaching are complementary and one alternative is process-based teaching, to be used if product teaching does not work and if the child presents process deficits is implemented.
Abstract: Te use of process-, or modality-based, instruction has been heavily criticized because of the often questionable reliability of process testing and an absence of demonstrable process-linked academic gains in groups of students with whom the approach has been employed. Its critics have advocated product, or subskill, teaching as the only acceptable approach. While we agree that product teaching should be the primary instructional strategy, we feel a need for alternative approaches as well because teachers, faced with pupil failure, must often ask themselves, dWhat do I do now?d One alternative is process-based teaching, to be used if product teaching does not work and if the child presents process deficits. To implement our view that product and process teaching are complementary and

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this article, a procedure for predicting the appropriateness of signing as a communication technique for individuals with speaking impairments is presented, which compares a potential learner's motor control with the motor skills necessary for producing intelligible signs.
Abstract: This paper outlines a procedure for predicting the appropriateness of signing as a communication technique for individuals with speaking impairments. The procedure compares a potential learner’s motor control with the motor skills necessary for producing intelligible signs. Motor requisites for signs were determined by a task analysis of handshapes, locations, and movements. The percentage of occurrence of the various motor components was calculated from an analysis of a core vocabulary selected to be appropriate as an initial vocabulary for nonspeaking individuals. A generalization procedure predicting ability to produce additional vocabulary items (from the Dictionary of American Sign Language on computer) is presented, allowing estimation of expressive vocabulary potential for American Sign Language.

ReportDOI
01 Jan 1980
TL;DR: A series of six experiments conducted to increase understanding of human performance on diagnostic tasks and in the process to investigate the feasibility of using context-free computer-based simulations to train troubleshooting skills provide a data base for both theoretical issues in fault diagnosis and practical application of computer aiding to live system performance.
Abstract: : This report summarizes a series of six experiments conducted to increase our understanding of human performance on diagnostic tasks, and in the process to investigate the feasibility of using context-free computer-based simulations to train troubleshooting skills. Three simulated diagnostic tasks were developed: a simple context-free task, a complex context-free task, and a context-specific task (simulation of aircraft powerplants). The six experiments evaluated the effects of computer aiding on performance of each task and on subsequent unaided performance, using different task mixes, subjects (4 to 48 engineering or technical trainees), and conditions (self-pacing vs. forced pacing; feedback loops). Computer aiding reduced the number of tests required to diagnose simple problems and enhanced subsequent unaided performance except when subjects were under time pressures. Training on the simple task with computer aiding first inhibited and then enhanced performance on the complex context-free task. Training on the context-free tasks improved performance on the context- specific task. Results provide a data base for both theoretical issues in fault diagnosis and practical application of computer aiding to live system performance.