Showing papers on "Task analysis published in 1986"

Task complexity and nursing expertise as factors in decision making.

Abstract: This study used an information-processing approach and verbal protocol methodology to describe the initial and overall approaches to planning used by six expert and five novice nurses for three patient cases of varying complexity. Subjects did not change their initial approaches significantly across the cases. Most experts consistently used broad initial approaches, but no clear pattern was evident in novices' use of initial approaches. Experts varied their overall approaches as a function of case complexity; novices did not. Most experts used opportunistic overall approaches in the more complex cases; that is, they jumped about, pursuing whatever was opportune at a given point in the planning process. However, they used systematic overall approaches in the least complex case. In contrast, most novices used opportunistic overall approaches in all cases. No relationship was found between overall approaches used and quality of plans developed. The findings support the cognitive model of planning proposed by Hayes-Roth and Hayes-Roth (1979) and the conclusion found in information-processing literature that the task itself is a major determinant of decision-making behavior.

Activation Theory and Task Design: An Empirical Test of Several New Predictions

Abstract: Predictions from activation theory concerning task design are presented. Activation theory is modified to (a) account for the frequent empirical finding that relatively nonstimulating tasks cause elevated arousal levels and (b) allow for effects of individual differences on task-characteristics/taskresponse relationships. An experiment was conducted to test the hypotheses that (a) a relatively nonstimulating task would cause more negative reactions (increased arousal, decreased satisfaction) than a moderately high-stimulating task; (b) electrodermal lability and extroversion would moderate task-stimulation-level/task-response relationships; and (c) there would be inverted-U relationships between activation levels and performance. Modest support for each of the hypotheses was obtained. Activation theory is discussed as an explanation for the process that intervenes between task stimulation and responses of task performers. Activation theory has been used to explain the effects of variations in task design on responses of task performers (Scott, 1966), but little empirical research has evaluated activation theory's utility as a task design theory. This shortage of research may be due to a belief that activation theory allows only vague predictions (Hackman & Oldham, 1980; Steers & Mowday, 1977), or does not consider effects of individual differences (Hackman & Oldham, 1980; Hulin & Blood, 1968), in explaining task-characteristic/task-response relationships. The present study addresses these issues in an empirical test of activation theory. Activation theory is based on the concept of activation level, denned here as the degree of neural activity in the reticular activation system (RAS), a major part of the central nervous system (Fiske & Maddi, 1961; Scott, 1966). Activation level is monotonically related to the total stimulation impact on the RAS from external (e.g., noise), internal (e.g., heart rate), and cerebral cortex (e.g., cognitions) sources. Because activation level is difficult to measure directly, it is typically inferred from other measures of central nervous system activation (e.g., electroencephalograms) and/or physiological arousal (e.g., skin conductance).

Expertise in Debugging Computer Programs: An Analysis of the Content of Verbal Protocols

Abstract: The results of an exploratory study that investigated expert and novice debugging processes with the aim of contributing to a general theory of programming expertise are reported. The research had two major objectives. First, it sought to control for the variability in individual problem solving by incorporating certain aspects of subjects' debugging processes into the debugging model. The criterion of expertise was the subjects' ability to chunk the program they were required to debug. This method proved effective at explaining much of the variability in debugging time and the number of errors subjects made and, hence, afforded information on the differences in the debugging processes of experts and novices. Second, the study assessed the nature of the differences in expert and novice debugging processes by analyzing the data at two levels, representing different degrees of dependence on the current problem solving environment. The literature suggests that novices rely on formal models in problem solving while experts react principally to the task environment as revealed during problem solving. The method used was verbal protocol analysis. Data were collected from sixteen programmers employed by the same organization. An a priori task analysis was used as the basis for a content analysis of the protocol data. The research provided some support for the notion that experts are situation-dependent problem solvers, while novices are situation-independent problem solvers.

Take complexity in visual inspection

Abstract: Three types of inspection complexity were tested on an inspection task using both industrial and student subjects. Items inspected varied with regard to the number of different fault types (two, four, or six), whether the inspecting standards for each fault type were the same or different, and whether faults occurred anywhere on the item or only on specific sub-areas. Number of fault types had a large effect on the search component of the task. The effect of same or different standards was largely confined to the decision-making component. There was no effect of faults being distributed across the whole or part of the item. The 18 industrial quality-control personnel were not significantly different in performance from the 48 student subjects tested.

Capacity Limitations in Children's Reasoning: A Dual-Task Approach.

Abstract: HALFORD, GRAEME S.; MAYBERY, MURRAY T.; and BAIN, JOHN D. Capacity Limitations in Children's Reasoning: A Dual-Task Approach. CHILD DEVELOPMENT, 1986, 57, 616-627. 2 dual-task paradigms, the memory load interference paradigm and the easy-to-hard paradigm, were used as converging operations to study capacity limitations in children's reasoning. The primary task was Nterm series reasoning and the secondary task was short-term retention and rehearsal of items. Pilot experiments showed that passive retention of a short-term memory load did not interfere with reasoning. Interference was observed from active rehearsal of large memory loads in Experiment 1, but the results also suggested that interference is probably a function of amount of processing in the secondary task and is not exclusive to mnemonic secondary tasks. The performance of 5-6-year-olds on transitive inference was significantly reduced by a concurrent information-processing task, suggesting a capacity limitation. In Experiment 2, the easy-to-hard paradigm was used and showed that transitive inference scores were predicted by performances on an easier version of the N-term series task performed concurrently with a short-term rehearsal task, when separate performances on the latter 2 were partialed out. It was concluded that transitive inference ability in children is capacity limited.

Effects of Task Difficulty and Interunit Interdependence on Information Processing Systems

Abstract: In this article the authors discuss research they conducted that examined the relationship between task difficulty and the extent of boundary-spanning activity within an organization. The authors b...

A methodological assessment and evaluation of dual-task paradigms

Abstract: This article outlines three major assumptions often implicitly made in dual-task experiments conducted to assess attentional capacity requirements of memorial processes. These assumptions are shown to be incorrect. Three criteria which should be met in dual-task experiments that draw inferences from secondary task decrements are proposed: (1) there should be resource trade-off with the secondary task sensitive to the resource demands of the primary task; (2) there should be equivalence of single and dual primary task performance; and (3) the secondary task must remain resource sensitive throughout the experiment. An experiment was carried out in which the primary and secondary tasks were designed according to these criteria. The results demonstrate that when the criteria are met then secondary task performance can be predictive of primary task difficulty: however, the experiment also highlights the fact that a simple assessment of capacity will not predict total task performance.

Facilitating Task Acquisition through the Use of a Self-Operated Auditory Prompting System.

Abstract: This study investigated effects of a self-operated auditory prompting system, utilizing a Walkman-type cassette player, on the acquisition and maintenance of functional tasks by adolescents with se...

Community-Referenced Instruction: Research and Issues

Abstract: This review addresses some of the more crucial teaching and learning issues that arise when community-referenced instruction is applied to persons with severe disabilities. These issues include environmental assessment, task analysis, trial sequencing, control, empirical and social validity, and measurement. A stimulus set of standards that emerged from the literature reviewed was presented to guide and evaluate future community-referenced research.

A framework for cognitive task analysis in systems design

Abstract: The present rapid development of advanced information technology and its use for support of operators of complex technical systems are changing the content of task analysis towards the analysis of mental activities in decision making. Automation removes the humans from routine tasks, and operators are left with disturbance control and critical diagnostic tasks, for which computers are suitable for support, if it is possible to match the computer strategies and interface formats dynamically to the requirements of the current task by means of an analysis of the cognitive task.

Task Analysis for Work Design on the Basis of Action Regulation Theory

Abstract: Action regulation theory is a psychological theory in which action is understood as a process covering not only the planning but also the concrete execution of actions. The theory was developed in ...

Cognitive factors in learning and retention of procedural tasks

Abstract: Procedural tasks, the most important and necessary type of task for Navy mission readiness, consist of an ordered sequence of steps or operations performed on a single object or in a specific situation. They involve few decisions, are generally performed the same way every time, and performance skills are frequently not well retained. Naval personnel must maintain high levels of procedural skill and knowledge to be able to perform their jobs successfully. This document reports on a study that was conducted to develop a taxonomy of qualitative explanations for teaching procedural tasks and for testing the effects of qualitative explanations on learning, initial performance, and retention of an assembly procedural task.

Training Apartment Upkeep Skills to Rehabilitation Clients: A Comparison of Task Analytic Strategies.

Abstract: The research was designed to validate procedures to teach apartment upkeep skills to severely handicapped clients with various categorical disabilities. Methodological features of this research included performance comparisons between general and specific task analyses, effect of an impasse correction baseline procedure, social validation of training goals, natural environment assessments and contingencies, as well as long-term follow-up. Subjects were taught to perform upkeep responses on their air conditioner-heating unit, electric range, refrigerator, and electrical appliances within the context of a multiple-probe across subjects experimental design. The results showed acquisition, long-term maintenance, and generalization of the upkeep skills to a nontraining apartment. General task analyses were recommended for assessment and specific task analyses for training. The impasse correction procedure generally did not produce acquisition.

The Effects of Self-Efficacy Training on Training Task Performance.

Abstract: This study examined the effects of self-efficacy training on training task performance. Managers who received a training intervention consisting of mastery with positive feedback developed higher s...

Analysis of task analysis procedures

Abstract: For the new developer, deciding which task analysis procedures to use can be confusing. In this article, we describe the five functions comprising the task analysis process: inventorying, describing, selecting, sequencing, and analyzing tasks. We then describe some critical distinctions in the task analysis process: micro/macro level, top-down/bottom-up, and job/learning task analysis. We then combine the functions and distinctions in task analysis into a quasi-algorithm to suggest which of thirty task analysis procedures may be used to fulfill each of the functions. Those procedures are described briefly in the Appendix.

Influence of Task Interdependence an Number of Poor Performance on Diagnoses of Causes of Poor Performance

Abstract: In this article the authors examine how supervisors are influenced by the relationship between the number of poorly performing employees in a group and the degree of task interdependence. The autho...

Studying Knowledge Acquisition: Distinctions among Procedural, Conceptual and Logical Knowledge.

Abstract: This paper takes the position that logical knowledge is distinct from conceptual and procedural knowledge and can make a unique contribution to the understanding of knowledge acquisition. This view of logical knowledge departs from the traditional Piagetian view of stages and the overriding view of logic as the sole means of constructing new knowledge. Logical knowledge is compared to ar contrasted with conceptual an( procedural knowledge. The interrelationships among the three aspects of knowledge during knowledge acquisition are discussed. . Knowledge Acquisition 3 Studying Knowledge Acquisition: Procedural, Conceptual, or Logical Knowledge? At one time the term cognitive development was nearly synonomous with the study of Piaget's theory of intellectual development. Cognitive developmentalists sought to study the existence of general, logical structures of thought that developed through a series of universal stages. While the issue is not settled, the tide in recent years has moved away from the Piagetian position. The acquisition of logical structures has been treated both as an example of conceptual knowledge (e.g., Markman, 1978, 1979; Chi, 1985) and as an example of procedural knowledge (e.g., Siegler, 1979; Klahr, 1984). Further, Gelman (1985) has argued that logical structures exist implicitly for very young children, and merely become more flexible and generalized as children's thecr:ie3 of the world change and as they acquire metacognitive skills. While this shift in focus represents in part a dissatisfaction with Piaget's logical formalism as a way to characterize the structures of the human mind, evidence suggests that children's thinking may well progress through orderly, stage-like changes (Fisher, 1983; Case, 1985). Piaget's goal of identifying structures or principles that unify knowledge within and among domains must not be abandoned-(Beilin, 1983, 1984). The study of knowledge acquisition will be most fruitful if logical, conceptual, and Knowledge Acquisition 4 procedural knowledge are considered three but interrelated aspects of knowing. The argument to be presented here is that 1, 1 knowledge has properties that distinguish it from conce/ d procedural knowledge. Briefly, logical knowledge refers to the abstract, lawful principles or structures that organize thin,-,ing in all domains. Conceptual knowledge refers to the accum lated content knowledge about the world. Like logical knowledge, conceptual knowledge is used to construct knowledge and shows qualitative change. The major difference is that the conceptual structures are domain specific, and consequently do not show stage-like development. Procedural knowledge refers to the task specific rules, skills, aCtions and sequences of action employed to reach goals. It shares no features with logical knowledge except occasional qualitative change. Each serves a unique role in knowledge acquisition. Table 1 shows the points of similarity and difference to be expanded upon in the text. Insert Table 1 about here

Simulation-based research in part-task training

Abstract: The work described in this report adresses the Air Forces's need for low-cost, effective training devices. The project guidelines to partition complex flight tasks, now trained in actual equipment and simulators, into parts that can be effectively trained on less expensive systems. The primary product developed to meet this goal is a first-generation decision support system (DSS). The literature on the methods and effectiveness of partitioning tasks for training is selectively reviewed. Cognitive task analysis techniques, providing the means for partitioning a task into psychologically valid components, are also reviewed and, as an example, are applied to a flight task. The logic and content of the DSS are presented, followed by general conclusions and recommendations for futher research.

Dealing with a database query language in a new situation

Abstract: The experiment presented constitutes an initial attempt to create a model of the end user of a database query language. The central issue is the cognitive behaviour reflected when a user faces a query condition which is similar to, but more complex than those conditions he has been taught to deal with. This behaviour is characterized by its problem-solving nature. In order to approach an understanding of the cognitive processes involved, a task analysis is undertaken. The instruction text to the query language is seen as a major ingredient of the task analysis. The analysis suggests that subjects may focus on different aspects of the instruction text. Data derived by recording the subjects “thinking aloud” provide support for this expectation. Four different routes to the solution of the “new” questions are identified.

Learning strategies and the learner's approach to a problem solving task

Abstract: In this paper data were presented about the differences in performance of several learners on a problem solving task. The nature of these differences was explored in terms of the learners' strategies and approach to the task. It was argued that the pattern of strategy application should be interpreted in relation to the way in which the learner engaged in the task. Furthermore, the pattern of strategy application was found to be most meaningful when interpreted within the framework of the learners' approach to the task. Success on the task appeared to be more strongly linked to the learners' approach than to the strategies per se. This paper has provided further insight into what is meant by a deep and surface approach to a task. Evidence has been presented which shows that the learners' approach may be implemented in practice in different ways. It is hoped that the paper will stimulate many questions relating to learning on other tasks and in different contexts. For example, do learners have a characteristic learning approach? Does their approach vary according to the task or context? What factors influence the learning approach which is adopted? What implications does the notion of approach to learning have for classroom teaching?

Rational analysis of realistic mathematics education as a theoretical source for psychology. Fractions as a paradigm

Abstract: Task analysis for instruction and research has enjoyed the attention of educationalists and psychologists for some time and is now even more topical than ever. In the present paper some stress is put on the rational analysis of tasks and partial courses as used in curriculum development and research on instruction, as well as on some basic conceptions on which such analysis can be founded. More often than not the structure of the subject matter to be taught has both dominated these activities and the way to report on them. Too often a didactical consensus on what is mathematical education is tacitly presupposed. Here an alternative to this conception is sketched, that is, the realistic rational analysis, illustrated by a few examples on fractions. Especially what regards their implication for the macro-structure of a partial curriculum. Due to this the structure of long term learning-processes plays a permanent role in the way the examples have been formulated. They have been developed in close collaboration with my colleague A. Treffers. Situation models, which as cognitive process models are rooted in meaningful contexts, are nuclear to the description. Two examples of such models are described. Some recommendations complete the article.

Approximate modelling of cognitive activity: towards an expert system design aid

Abstract: Constructs from theoretical psychology can be used to decompose the representational and processing resources of cognition. The decomposition supports “cognitive task analysis” through which user performance can be related to the functioning of resources. Such functional relationships have been formalised and embodied in an expert system. This builds approximate models which describe cognitive activity associated with the execution of dialogue tasks. Attributes of these “cognitive task models” can be used to predict likely properties of user performance.

Task Analysis of Tactical Leadership Skills for Bradley Infantry Fighting Vehicle Leaders

Abstract: : This report presents a task analysis of the Tactical Leadership Skills of Bradley Infantry Fighting Vehicle leaders. The task list was examined for critical training requirements, and requirements for training device support of this training were identified. Existing and projected training devices and materials were examined for adequacy in meeting each of the requirements, and recommendations were made on the identity and characteristics of devices required to support Bradley Leader training. The task lists, covering squad through battalion level, provide a generic listing of a set of mechanized infantry leadership tasks, and can be used as a data base for other tactical training program developments. Keywords: Task analysis; Gunnery; Tactics; Leadership; Infantry; Tactical skills; Mechanized infantry.

Study, Development, and Design of a Mouse

Abstract: A series of research studies were conducted to develop design criteria for a general purpose mechanical input device. The design criteria and parameters were established with ergonomic studies which included task analysis, competitive analysis and human performance testing. By taking a leadership role in the production issues, Human Factors engineers were successful in having the results of their research implemented into a new design. This report is a case study which offers some insight into methodological and design issues associated with producing an ergonomically designed product.