Showing papers on "Task analysis published in 1990"

Cognitive Elements of Empowerment: An “Interpretive” Model of Intrinsic Task Motivation

Abstract: This article presents a cognitive model of empowerment. Here, empowerment is defined as increased intrinsic task motivation, and our subsequent model identifies four cognitions (task assessments) as the basis for worker empowerment: sense of impact, competence, meaningfulness, and choice. Adopting an interpretive perspective, we have used the model also to describe cognitive processes through which workers reach these conclusions. Central to the processes we describe are workers' interpretive styles and global beliefs. Both preliminary evidence for the model and general implications for research are discussed.

Design problem solving: a task analysis

Abstract: I propose a task structure for design by analyzing a general class of methods that I call propose-critique-modify methods. The task structure is constructed by identifying a range of methods for each task. For each method, the knowledge needed and the subtasks that it sets up are identified. This recursive style of analysis provides a framework in which we can understand a number of particular proposals for design problem solving as specific combinations of tasks, methods, and subtasks. Most of the subtasks are not really specific to design as such. The analysis shows that there is no one ideal method for design, and good design problem solving is a result of recursively selecting methods based on a number of criteria, including knowledge availability. How the task analysis can help in knowledge acquisition and system design is discussed.

Task Revision: A Neglected Form of Work Performance

Abstract: This study addressed the problem of task revision, a virtually unresearched issue in the work performance literature. We defined task revision as action taken to correct a faulty procedure, an inaccurate job description, or a role expectation that is dysfunctional for an organization. Two experiments were constructed to measure task revision and test for its determinants. Results showed that goal setting inhibited task revision: instructions to "do your best" were superior to a specific goal. Facilitators of task revision were the salience of alternatives and being in a supervisory position with accountability pressures. We discuss the implications of these results in terms of the functions of counter-role behavior for organizations and the need to broaden the construct of work performance. Work performance has long occupied a central role in organizational research. It was the primary issue during the beginnings of industrial psychology (e.g., Munsterberg, 1913), of major concern during the human relations movement (e.g., Likert, 1961), and at center stage as empirical research blossomed in organizational behavior (e.g., Vroom, 1964). Now voluminous, the literature on work performance ranges from the extensive study of organizational and social factors that influence work behavior to the analysis of cognitive processes underlying task effort. In recent years, the most common form of performance research has translated the issue into a cognitive question. The aim has not only been to find conditions under which people will work harder, but to explain the mental processes underlying task activity. For example, early versions of need theory, which emphasized stages and growth in human desires, have gradually given way to expectancy models in which valued outcomes are a part of a cognitive calculus hypothesized to precede behavior. Likewise, reinforcement theory, with its emphasis on external incentives and behavioral learning, has been overtaken by goal-setting approaches in which salient outcomes serve as mental targets for behavior. Though we do not yet know exactly how individuals process information in performance contexts,

The role of error in organizing behaviour

Abstract: During recent years, the significance of the concept of human error has changed considerably. The reason for this has partly been an increasing interest of psychological research in the analysis of complex real-life phenomena, and partly the changes of modern work conditions caused by advanced information technology. Consequently, the topic of the present contribution is not a definition of the concept or a proper taxonomy. Instead, a review is given of two professional contexts for which the concept of error is important. Three cases of analysis of human-system interaction are reviewed: (1) traditional task analysis and human reliability estimation; (2) causal analysis of accidents after the fact; and, finally, (3) design of reliable work conditions in modern socio-technical systems. It is concluded that ‘;errors’ cannot be studied as a separate category of behaviour fragments; the object of study should be cognitive control of behaviour in complex environments.

Older adults and daily living task profiles

Abstract: This paper describes data generated from a comprehensive study in which human factors techniques were applied to the analysis of 25 personal and instrumental activities of daily living (ADLs) performed by 60 older adults (age 55 to 93 years) living in the community. Demand profiles generated from task analysis of video-taped ADLs identify the demands inherent in task activities and the objects and environments associated with them. Examples of four different approaches to examine ADL performance using demand profiles are presented: global descriptions of demands across all ADL tasks, task component profiles, task-specific profiles, and action profiles.

Relations between task and activity: Elements for elaborating a framework for error analysis.

Abstract: The notion of error, when applied to an activity or the result of an activity, implies the notion of task: it expresses the deviation between the activity and the task being considered from an angle which is judged to be relevant. The task and the activity are the object of representations for the analyst (or specialist) and for the driver. Four representations are dealt with in this paper: the task and the activity for the specialist and the task and the activity for the driver. An interpretation is proposed for these tasks, and they are illustrated using some of the work already carried out in this field. The signification of deviations between these representations is then discussed, together with the advantage of studying these deviations in order to clarify error-producing mechanisms. Analysis in terms of task and activity raises methodological and practical problems which are touched upon; it does not exclude referring to psychological theoretical frameworks to which it is worthwhile linking it. Thi...

Joint moderating effects of job experience and task component complexity: Relations among goal setting, task strategies, and performance.

Abstract: Summary Research in goal setting has demonstrated moderating roles of job experience and task complexity in the relation of goals to performance. Goal setting appears to have its strongest effect on an individual's performance and task strategy quality for jobs having low task complexity. A field study (n = 347) was conducted to assess the moderating role of job experience and task component complexity, or the number of distinct and independent actions an individual must process, using respondents from several organizations across a variety of job levels. The results of moderated regression analyses demonstrate support for the hypothesis that task component complexity would moderate the effect of goal setting on performance. In addition, experience moderated the relation of goal setting to task strategy quality and performance for jobs having a great deal of task component complexity. The results are discussed as further evidence of the lagged beneficial effect of goals on task performance for a job high in task component complexity.

Relation between GDSS use and group task complexity: an experimental study

Abstract: A laboratory experiment was conducted to explore the influence of GDSS (group decision support systems) on decision quality, decision time, and user satisfaction under different levels of group-task complexity. Forty-eight groups each consisting of three members were assigned to four experimental treatments that differed in setting (non-GDSS or GDSS) and in group decision task complexity (low complexity or high). The findings indicate that, compared to working in a non-GDSS setting, the particular GDSS setting used (i) was more effective in solving complex problems, (ii) required more time for a low-complexity task but not for a high-complexity task, and (iii) resulted in lower satisfaction for a low-complexity task but a higher satisfaction for a high-complexity task. These findings help identify what type of group problems are better suited for GDSS use. >

Getting to Grips with Competency-Based Training and Assessment.

Abstract: DOCUMENT RESUME

Task Analysis of the UH-60 Mission and Decision Rules for Developing a UH-60 Workload Prediction Model. Volume 1. Summary Report

Abstract: : A composite scenario was used to conduct a comprehensive task analysis of the UH-60 mission. The analysis used a top-down approach to identify the mission's phases, functions, and tasks. Nine phases, 34 segments, 48 functions, and 138 tasks were identified. The crewmember performing each task was identified, and estimates of the sensory, cognitive, and psychomotor workload associated with the tasks were derived. Estimates of the task times were also derived. The mission/task analysis data were used to develop a computer model of workload for UH-60 crewmembers. The model used a bottom-up approach to build mission functions from tasks and mission segments from functions. Decision rules were written to specify the procedure for combining the tasks into functions and the functions into segments. The model permitted an analysis of total workload experienced by each crewmember in the performance of both sequential and concurrent tasks. Keywords: Workload; Work measurement; Work functions; Mission analysis; Task analysis; Man-machine interface; Aviator workload; Modeling.

Task tracing apparatus in a multitask operating system

Abstract: A task tracing apparatus stores causes and addresses of interruptions, and system call numbers and addresses of system calls issued by an ongoing task. This makes it possible to obtain not only the basic information about switches from one task to another, but also the other related and detailed information as needed. Thus the development of software systems is made easier and more efficient.

Do they know what they're doing? An evaluation of word-processor user's implicit and explicit task-relevant knowledge, and its role in self-directed learning

Abstract: Many people teach themselves how to use word-processing systems, but how successful are they in their endeavor? This study investigates a number of theoretical and practical issues associated with self-directed learning Users of differing experience were asked to perform a simple task, using an unfamiliar word-processing system However, they were given no information about the new system, prior to task commencement, save information they explicitly requested An analysis of users' questions revealed that only the most experienced had a suitable mental task description available to them Others relied upon visible components of the task to cue their questioning strategy in a manner which suggested reliance upon a recognition, rather than a recall strategy A clear dissociation was noted between users' procedural knowledge of a task, reflected in their performance ability; and their metaknowledge of the task, ie their awareness of what procedural knowledge would be required in order to complete the task The implications of these findings for the design of user support systems, and for user modelling are discussed

Logical task modelling for man-machine dialogue

Abstract: To design a task-independent dialogue system, we present a task-oriented dialogue analysis in terms of finding the referents of definite descriptions and we show how this analysis leads to a goal-oriented inferential representation of the task. This representation provides a logical generic model of the task, which is compatible with a belief system. Then, we show how this task model, jointly used with the domain-specific user model for which we propose a formalization, enables a dialogue system to plan request negotiation dialogues.

Gerontology instruction: different models for different results

Abstract: The development of gerontology instruction is discussed with specific emphasis on developing rational program models. The treatment is in three parts. The first emphasizes that gerontology instruction can have several orientations or outcomes. The second discusses the expansion of the gerontology knowledge base and suggests varying emphases for various orientations of instruction and student outcomes. The third applies a cognitive task analysis framework for developing three models of gerontology instruction. Conclusions are offered.

Taking Cognitive Task Analysis into the Field: Bridging the Gap from Research to Application:

Abstract: Cognitive methods of task analysis have been used for training development. Although quite promising, these methods are generally time consuming and labor-intensive, and require considerable expertise. This has precluded their full use in field training situations. Economical, practical and user-friendly methods are needed which can be integrated easily with current approaches. This symposium paper discusses the potential of cognitive task analysis as well as the practicality problem. Of particular concern is how cognitive methods can receive widespread application among training practitioners — how to transition theory and research in cognitive task analysis into mainstream training development programs.

Using Time Delay with Task Analyses.

Abstract: During the past 20 years, the effects of a variety of specific instructional procedures used to teach students enrolled in special education classes have been investigated. One of these procedures, time delay, was first described by Touchette (1971) when he taught visual discrimination tasks to students with severe handicaps. Interest in time delay procedures has increased recently; over 30 published studies have assessed the effectiveness of these procedures to teach a variety of skills to students with various handicapping conditions, including those with mild, moderate, and severe handicaps; learning disabilities; multiple handicaps; and autism. The procedure has been successful with learners of all ages from preschoolers to adults.

A task-analytic approach to the automated design of information graphics

Abstract: : Graphical representations popularly thought to be useful for communicating and processing information yield mixed results when tested with real users. Cognitive research suggests that graphic design methodologies that focus primarily on the information to be presented in a graphic fail to exploit the potentials of graphics for expediting human performance of information- processing tasks: (a) allowing users to substitute efficient visual operators in place of more demanding logical operators; and (b) streamlining users' search for needed information. BOZ is a graphic design and presentation tool that constructively applies task-analytic principles of the user tasks. BOZ analyses a procedural description of a user task and derives a provably equivalent visual task by substituting visual operators in place of logical operators. BOZ automatically designs and renders an accompanying graphic, encoding data in the graphic such that performance of each visual operator is supported and visual search is minimized. Graphics produced by BOZ are static 2D images that support interactive manipulations of the graphical objects in a display to allow direct modification of the internally stored information that the graphic depicts. BOZ is used to design a graphical alternative to a standard tabular display of airline schedule information to support an airline reservation task. Keywords: Graphic design, Task analysis, Perception, Visual languages, User interface.

Teaching adolescents with severe disabilities to use the public telephone.

Abstract: Two adolescents with severe disabilities served as participants in a study conducted to train in the use of the public telephone to call home. Participants were trained to complete a 17-step task analysis using a training package which consisted of total task presentation in conjunction with a four-level prompting procedure (i.e., independent, verbal, verbal + gesture, verbal + guidance). All instruction took place in a public setting (e.g., a shopping mall) with generalization probes taken in two alternative settings (e.g., a movie theater and a convenience store). A multiple probe across individuals design demonstrated the training package was successful in teaching participants to use the telephone to call home. In addition, newly acquired skills generalized to the two untrained settings. Implications for community-based training are discussed.

Task Analysis/Workload (TAWL): A Methodology for Predicting Operator Workload

Abstract: The Task Analysis/Workload (TAWL) methodology was developed to predict operator workload using the information from a task analysis of the system. In addition, the TAWL Operator Simulation System (...

Task Analysis/Workload (TAWL) User's Guide. Version 3.0

Abstract: : The Task Analysis/Workload (TAWL) methodology predicts operator workload using the information produced from a task analysis of the system. In addition, the TAWL Operator Simulation System (TOSS) performs all the database management and model execution functions needed to use the method. This user's guide contains a description of the TAWL methodology and instructions for generating a workload prediction model using the TOSS software. Part I of the guide presents an overview of the TAWL methodology; each of the three major phases of the methodology (Task and Workload Analyses, Model Construction, and Model Execution) is described in detail. A glossary is provided to define the use of many of the terms. Part II presents step-by-step instructions for use of the menu-driven Version 3.0 of the TOSS software. Examples of workload rating scales and TOSS output are provided to support the application of the methodology. Keywords: Aviator workload, Computer software, Man-machine interface, Modeling, Operator workload, Simulation.

An experimental evaluation of task and methodology variables for requirements definition phase success

Abstract: The effects that two methods of eliciting requirements and two types of task structure have on user involvement and analysis phase success are explored. A 2*2 factorial design compares a prototyping process to data-flow diagramming using a CASE (computer-aided software engineering) tool. Each method is used by one analyst and one user to elicit requirements for a decision-support system task or a transaction-processing system task. Some differences between treatments are found, although due to small sample size, results are not conclusive. Some concerns regarding future research studies that examine differences in systems development methodologies are also discussed. >

A task structure for case-based design

Abstract: The methodology of task analysis is used in case-based design to address the questions of what tasks the system needs to perform, what methods are applicable to these tasks, what knowledge the methods use, and what control they exercise over the processing. An abstract task is analyzed in terms of the methods applicable to it. A method is characterized by the types of knowledge it uses, the subtasks it sets up, and the control it exercises over the processing of the subtasks. Each subtask is similarly analyzed in terms of the methods applicable to it, and so on, up to some elementary level of decomposition. This analysis yields an integrative functional task structure for solving behavior-to-structure design tasks by the method of case-based reasoning in the domain of simple physical devices. The task structure is functional in that each method in it is directed towards some specific task. It is integrative in that it combines the methods of case-based reasoning, causal analysis, plan instantiation, heuristic association, heuristic search, and generate and test for solving the design task. >