Showing papers on "Task analysis published in 1991"

Task-analytic approach to the automated design of graphic presentations

Abstract: BOZ is an automated graphic design and presentation tool that designs graphics based on an analysis of the task for which a graphic is intended to support. When designing a graphic, BOZ aims to optimize two ways in which graphics help expedite human performance of information-processing tasks: (1) allowing users to substitute simple perceptual inferences in place of more demanding logical inferences, and (2) streamlining users' search for needed information. BOZ analyzes a logical description of a task to be performed by a human user and designs a provably equivalent perceptual task by substituting perceptual inferences in place of logical inferences in the task description. BOZ then designs and renders an accompanying graphic that encodes and structures data such that performance of each perceptual inference is supported and visual search is minimized. BOZ produces a graphic along with a perceptual procedure describing how to use the graphic to complete the task. A key feature of BOZ's approach is that it is able to design different presentations of the same information customized to the requirements of different tasks. BOZ is used to design graphic presentations of airline schedule information to support five different airline reservation tasks. Reaction time studies done with real users for one task and graphic show that the BOZ-designed graphic significantly reduces users' performance time to the task. Regression analyses link the observed efficiency savings to BOZ's two key design principles: perceptual inference substitutions and pruning of visual search.

Multiple-task performance

Abstract: Part 1 Theory and methods: processing resources and attention, C.D.Wickens a review of the engineering models of information processing and decision-making in multi-task supervisory control, K.R.Pattipati and D.L.Kleinman modelling the acquisition of dual-task skills in a connectionist/control architecture, M.Detweiler and W.Schneider dual-task methodology - some common problems, D.L.Damos. Part 2 Learning and performance: issues for acquisition and transfer of time-sharing and dual-skill tasks, G.Lintern and C.D.Wickens multiple-cue probability learning and the design of information displays for multiple tasks, V.G.Cuqlock-Knopp et al vigilance and monitoring for multiple signals, A.Craig motor constraints in dual-task performance, H.Heuer. Part 3 Workload: workload assessment in multi-task environments, F.T.Eggemeier et al performance-based and subjective assessment of workload in multi-task environments, F.T.Eggemeier and G.F.Wilson physiological metrics of mental workload - a review of recent progress, A.F.Kramer psychological assessment of workload in multi-task environments, G.F.Wilson and F.T.Eggemeier. Part 4 Individual differences: individual differences in multiple-task performance, J.B.Brookings and D.L.Damos ageing, divided attention and dual-task performance, J.MacDowd et al development of skilled performance - an age-related perspective, A.D.Fisk and W.A.Rogers.

Language learning tasks: teacher intention and learner interpretation

Abstract: Recent explorations in task-based pedagogy have pointed out that learning outcome is the result of a fairly unpredictable interaction between the   

A review of cognitive teaching models

Abstract: The purpose of this article is to review from an instructional-design (ID) perspective nine teaching programs developed by cognitive psychologists over the last ten years. Among these models, Collins' cognitive apprenticeship model has the most explicit prescriptions for instructional design. In the article, the cognitive apprenticeship model is analyzed, then components of the model are used as an organizing framework for understanding the remaining models. Differences in approach are noted between traditional ID prescriptions and the cognitive teaching models. Surprisingly, no design strategies were found to be common to all the model programs. Key differences among programs included: (1) problem solving versus skill orientation, (2) detailed versus broad cognitive task analysis, (3) learner versus system control, and (4) error-restricted versus error-driven instruction. The article concludes with an argument for the utility of continuing dialogue between cognitive psychologists and instructional designers.

Ecological Task Analysis: Translating Movement Behavior Theory into Practice

Abstract: A new approach to task analysis is presented based upon an ecological theory of perception and current motor development and control theories. The ecological task analysis (ETA) approach stands in sharp contrast to more traditional approaches and offers procedures equally applicable to instruction and assessment of movement performance as well as to applied research. The strengths of the ETA approach lie in (a) its grounding in current motor development and control theories, (b) its linking of the task requirements, environmental conditions, and performer characteristics, (c) its application of a functional and dynamic approach to instruction and assessment, and (d) its integration of instruction and assessment procedures. Following a discussion of the traditional approach and ecological theory, four concepts are presented that emanate from Gibson’s theory of affordances. From these concepts ETA procedures are derived. Applied research questions relating to task analysis are also implied from the ecologic...

Relevant Classroom Assessment Training for Teachers

Abstract: What are the areas of mismatch between the assessment problems teachers face and the type of assessment training they receive? How can the gaps be addressed in testing courses?

Relationships Among Goal Difficulty, Business Strategies, and Performance On A Complex Management Simulation Task

Abstract: A complex, strategic management, computer simulation was used over a ten-week period to examine the effect of goal difficulty and use of business strategies on firm performance. Participants developed a limited number of competitive business strategies, similar to well-known strategies identified in strategic management research, to deal with task complexity. Both goals and strategies had significant effects on performance, but the effect of strategy was stronger than that of goals. In addition, goals affected strategies, and strategies moderated the goal-performance relationship.

What do referential communication tasks measure? A study of children with specific language impairment

Abstract: A group of 54 children with specific language impairment was compared with a control group on a referential communication task in which the child was asked to describe a picture from an array of eight similar items so that the listener could identify it. The language-impaired children performed more poorly than age-matched controls. However, there was no relationship between referential communication performance and conversational ability. Children who provided excessive and irrelevant information in conversation did not show the same characteristics in the experimental setting. Formal task requirements, such as the need to scan an array, appeared to be a major determinant of performance on structured referential communication tasks. These tasks are not sensitive to the types of pragmatic difficulty that some children have in open-ended conversation.

Discomfort glare is task dependent

Abstract: This study evaluated the effect of task difficulty on discomfort glare. Subjects performed two tasks on each trial. The first was a gap detection task, in which the subject indicated whether the gap had appeared on the top or bottom edge of the outline of a briefly projected square. The difficulty of this task was manipulated by changing the size of the gap in the square. The second was a discomfort–glare rating, in which the subject gave a numerical rating of the discomfort experienced from a glare source that was presented simultaneously with the gap–detection stimulus. The hypothesis was that the resulting changes in the difficulty of the gap–detection task would influence discomfort glare. The results indicate that (1) an increase in the difficulty of the gap–detection task resulted in an increase in discomfort glare, and (2) subjects with poorer overall gap detection performance tended to assign more discomfort to the glare stimuli than subjects with better gap–detection performance. These results are consistent with the hypothesis that discomfort glare is related to task difficulty. Consequently, a valid evaluation of discomfort glare in a given situation requires the presence of the relevant visual task. One interpretation is that task difficulty influences discomfort glare by modifying an observer's perceived level of visual impairment.

A Proposed Conceptual Model of Human Behavior and its Implications for Design of Warnings

Abstract: A model of human behavior is proposed that hierarchically describes levels of operator performance. Judgement-based performance occurs at the top level, and the lower levels correspond to knowledge-, rule-, and skill-based performance. Different forms of information denoted as values, symbols, signs, and signals are used at each of these levels of performance, allowing the effectiveness of different warning applications to be inferred. To be effective, warning information must be presented in the form appropriate for the operator's level of performance. Values therefore are appropriate when performance is at the judgement-based level. Explicit verbal information (symbols) is most likely to be effective when directed toward changing behavior from a knowledge- to a rule-based level, as when recommending actions in novel situations or to a judgement-based level, when goal priorities need to be changed. Signs are likely to be effective when performance is at a rule-based level, while signals are best for guiding needed transitions from a skill- to a rule-based level. Warning information should be carefully matched to the level of performance at which errors are taking place to be most effective and avoid information overload. To attain this goal, task analysis that focuses on cognitive activity is of essence. This includes measuring users' knowledge and documenting the flow of information during task performance.

People and computers VI

Abstract: Invited papers 1. HCI frameworks 2. Scenarios and rationales in design 3. Groupware 4. Graphical interaction 5. Evaluation 6. UIMS and workstations 7. Cognitive dimensions 8. Applications 9. Task analysis 10. Space and location.

The effects of self-esteem, task label, and performance feedback on task liking and intrinsic motivation.

Abstract: American undergraduate students' task liking and intrinsic motivation were examined using 2×2×2 (Self-Esteem × Task Label × Feedback) analyses of variance. Identical tasks were labeled as either difficult or easy, and bogus performance feedback was given randomly to each subject. For subjects with high self-esteem, feedback had strong impact on their liking of a difficult task, whereas for those with low self-esteem, feedback had strong impact on liking of an easy task

The Hercules CAD task management system

Abstract: The authors introduce a novel information model for CAD task management, called the task schema, that unifies many of the requisite features for data, process, and methodology management into a single, concise representation. The task schema based approach has been implemented in the Hercules task management system. Unlike previous approaches to task management, in which tasks are defined on demand, or serve as the end representations in and of themselves, Hercules uses a graphical interface to derive tasks from the task schema. Both the task schema and the internal representation of tasks in Hercules have a formal basis in established methods from graph theory and database design. >

Using information from external databases: contextual relationships of use, access method, task, database type, organizational differences, and outcomes

Abstract: This study applies theories about organizational information processing and about valuing information to better understand the influences on method of access and on effects of using online information. Interviews in four organizations indicated that users manage such systems in different ways suitable to the organization's problem-solving needs and personnel skills, in order to obtain considerable benefits and overcome some problems. Questionnaire data showed that type of database and organizational differences strongly influenced access method, but access method had no independent influence on usage or on perceived outcomes. Counter to expectations based upon the difficulties in assessing the cost/benefit ratio of information obtained from external sources, task variables had little independent influence on access method, usage, or outcomes. The moderate relationship between using online information in one's work and the two outcome factors seems generalizable across organizations. Differences in tasks, especially amount of information in one's task, appeared to influence the relationship between use and outcomes.

A Comparison of Two Tools for Cognitive Task Analysis: Concept Mapping and the Critical Decision Method:

Abstract: Two knowledge elicitation tools for cognitive task analysis are described and compared: Concept Mapping and the Critical Decision method (CDM). Concept Mapping is a procedure that can be used to represent the interviewee's conception of a task by developing a graphical schematic of these perception of the task's components. It is appropriate when one needs to capture the interviewee's cognitive organization of the task's routine elements and how these elements fit together. CDM is highly effective at eliciting tacit knowledge about perceptions, expertise, and aspects of a domain that are often difficult for experts to articulate. It has proven to be an effective tool for capturing the deeper, difficult-to-articulate knowledge that separates experts from novices. Used together, these techniques can be very complementary and effective. Concept Mapping provides an overview of the user's image of the task including information about the clustering of and flow between concepts. CDM is an effective tool for ide...

Operator strategies under varying conditions of workload

Abstract: An attempt was made to operationally define and measure strategic behavior in a complex multiple task environment. The Multi-Attribute Task battery was developed to simulate various aspects of flight and consisted of an auditory communication task, monitoring tasks, a tracking tasks, a resource management task which allowed a wide range of responding patterns, and a scheduling window which allowed operators to predict changes in workload. This battery was validated for its sensitivity to strategic behavior, and baseline measures for each individual task were collected. Twenty-four undergraduate and graduate students then performed the battery for four 64 minute sessions which took place over a period of 2 days. Each subject performed the task battery under four levels of workload, which were presented for equal lengths of time during all four sessions. Results indicated that in general, performance improves as a function of experience with the battery, but that performance decreased as workload level increased. The data also showed that subjects developed strategies for responding to the resource management task which allowed them to manage the high workload levels more efficiently. This particular strategy developed over time but was also associated with errors of complacency. These results are presented along with implications for the aviation field and areas of future research.

An Overview of Behavioural Approaches to Teaching Children with Learning Difficulties and the National Curriculum

Abstract: Recent criticisms of behavioural applications to children's learning may lead teachers to reject their use at a time when, in response to the 1991 Education Act, they are being urged to adopt similar principles to those which underpin a behavioural approach. This article looks at the background to behavioural applications to children's learning and provides a brief description of three approaches (task analysis, direct instruction and precision teaching) which have influenced the practice of many teachers and educational psychologists. The assumptions on which the three approaches are based are discussed, their similarities examined and their interrelationship within a process of continuous assessment considered. The article concludes by discussing the role of a behavioural approach in the light of the National Curriculum.

Wet and sticky : a novel model for computer-based painting

Abstract: The problems of computer based painting are considered from a fine arts stand point. A detailed criticism of existing approaches is provided. This criticism centres on the limited depth of existing models and the resultant limited complexity and relative poverty of their mark making capabilities. The notion of the importance of the accidental in art is highlighted and an argument is made for its inclusion in computer based painting models. An informal task analysis is carried out and a description is provided for the task of domain modeling. The results of this task analysis confirm the inadequacy of the existing computer based painting models. A novel paradigm, Wet & Sticky, is proposed which models the physical and behavioural characteristics of paint rather than just its colour properties. The initial proposals for the model require that it mimics the actions of gravity and the effects of ageing of upon different types of paint. An experimental development procedure is used to produce and refine a set of algorithms for an implementation of the new model, resulting in an increase in the complexity of the proposed model. The final model includes algorithms which simulate the actions of surface tension and diffusion. Details are given of the behavioural parameters and algorithms required by the model. This new model is capable of supporting the production of marks which possess a greater degree of complexity than possible with existing models. Throughout the development of the model the aim is to balance the requirements of producing a convincing visual and behavioural simulation of real paint, against the complexity of making a physically accurate simulation. The new model also provides the opportunity for new tools and techniques which are not only unsupportable with existing systems but also with traditional fine art painting methods. A selection of photographic results are included which provide support for the accuracy of the behaviour of the model.

The impact of knowledge representation on cognitive‐oriented task performance

Abstract: This research examines the impact of training style and operator individual differences on the task representation developed, automatized task performance, and controlled task performance. Results indicate that performance on relatively straightforward repetitive tasks usually associated with automatization is influenced by training style and the mental task representation held by operators. Also, domain representation is a significant determinant of performance on complex cognitive‐oriented tasks requiring controlled processes. Therefore, the task representation is identified as a high‐level performance determinant for both simple and complex task performance. No effect for training style or individual differences was found. It is concluded that training programs for systems requiring human‐computer interaction must account for this factor in order to facilitate the learning process and enhance task performance.

The Analysis of Expert Performance in the Redesign of the En Route Air Traffic Control Curriculum

Abstract: This paper describes a cognitive task analysis performed within an integrated framework to analyze knowledge structures, mental models, skills, and strategies of the en route controllers to provide an understanding of the key cognitive components of the controller's job. Seven different procedures were used to collect cognitive data, and this presentation concentrates on the results of three of those procedures as they contributed to an understanding of controller expertise. The procedures under discussion include performance modeling, structured problem solving, and paper problem solving. The performance modeling resulted in the identification of twelve primary tasks and a mental model made up of eight panels that underlie expert controller's organization of domain knowledge. The structured problem solving involved protocol analysis that resulted in the identification of three categories of controller strategies, and the paper problem solving resulted in a hierarchy of goals and a set of methods used by ...

Memory checklists: A method of teaching functional skills to brain‐damaged adults

Abstract: Three head-injured clients had difficulty performing vocational tasks and routine activities of daily living. Memory checklists, which consisted of a task analysis for each activity, were introduced. All three clients were immediately able to perform the tasks.