Showing papers on "Task analysis published in 1992"

A Guide To Task Analysis: The Task Analysis Working Group

Abstract: This book describes the task analysis approach, and gathers together and comprehensively describes the application of 25 major task analysis techniques, organizing them into a practical user guide. The Guide is aimed at industrial practitioners such as design engineeres, safety assessors, ergonomics practitioners, trainers, procedures writers, project managers, etc., with or without previous task analysis experience, who have a need to establish task requirements or to carry out task assessments. Examples of when and where Task Analysis could usually be applied are the following: - Where safety is important - Where it is necessary to provide assurance that task allocation and feasibility are appropriate - When operational feedback raises concerns over a particular human-machine interface - When the requirements for productivity have changed - Where personnel characteristics are different - Where different crewing or organizational structure is intended - Where a significantly different technology is being used - Where the same task has to be performed in a different environment

Training: Research and practice.

Abstract: Introduction. Learning and Skill Acquisition. Transfer and Retention of Skill. System Approaches to Training. Analysis: General Methodological Issues. Task-oriented Analysis. Psychological Approaches to Analysis. Training Design: Introduction and Theories. Training Methods. The Trainee. Computers and Training. Simulation. Evaluation. Subject Index. Author Index.

Human computer interaction: Psychology, task analysis, and software engineering

Abstract: Introducing Human Computer Interaction. An introduction to Human Memory. Memory Structures. Knowledge and Representation. Expertise. Skill and Skill Acquisition. Organisation and early Attempts at Modelling Human-Computer Interaction. Interaction and User Modelling in HCI. Task Analysis and Task Modelling. Developing Interface Designs. Evaluations of Interactive systems. User Interface Design. Environments. Management System and Toolkits. Task Analysis. Knowledge Analysis of Tasks. Design. Applied to Interactive Informal and Formal Specifications of User Interaction Task Scenarios. Appendix.

Analysis of the effects of task preferences, task demands, and adult attention on child behavior in outpatient and classroom settings

Abstract: Two studies were conducted with children who displayed behavior problems to evaluate the effects of task preference, task demands, and adult attention on child behavior. In Study 1, we conducted brief functional analyses in an outpatient clinic to identify variables that facilitated appropriate behavior. For 8 of 10 children, distinct patterns of performance occurred; 3 children displayed improved behavior with changes in task demands, 1 child displayed improved behavior with a preferred task, and 4 children displayed improved behavior with changes in adult attention. In most cases, the children's parents carried out the assessments with adequate procedural integrity. In Study 2, we applied similar assessment methods to a classroom setting over an extended period of time. We identified independent variables controlling appropriate, on-task, and academic behavior for 2 children on two tasks, with slightly different treatment procedures across tasks for both children. In addition, the results of brief functional analyses for both children corresponded to the extended classroom assessments.

Why do adult age differences increase with task complexity

Abstract: A total of 451 adults between 18 and 80 years of age participated in 2 studies conducted to investigate causes of the phenomenon that adult age differences in cognitive performance frequently increase with increased task complexity. All Ss performed 4 cognitive tasks at each of 3 levels of complexity. The strongest predictors of performance on the intermediate and complex versions of the tasks were performance on the simpler versions of the same tasks and a composite measure of working memory. It was concluded that one cause of the age-complexity phenomenon is that more complex cognitive tasks place greater demands on a working-memory resource that declines with increased age

The art of the obvious

Abstract: In addition to normal reading, knowledge can be gained from a paper document by pattern recognition and encoding of characteristics of the information media. There are reasons to believe that this can be done automatically with very little attentional demand. The knowledge gained is accessible to consciousness and can be used for task components like orientation, navigation, detection of changes and as a complement to normal reading. When information is computerized, and is read from a screen instead of from a paper, the conditions for automaticity are often radically changed. In most cases the reader has to gain the corresponding knowledge by effortful cognitive processes. This means adding to the cognitive load leaving less attentional capacity for the main task at hand. This problem can be avoided by a careful analysis of a reading task into its automatic and non-automatic components, followed by a dedicated user interface design where information relevant for orientation, navigation, etc. is presented in a way that the reader can perceive rather than read.

On the choice of scales for task analysis

Abstract: 101 incumbents of 25 service jobs rated their respective tasks on relative time spent, difficulty of learning, criticality, and overall importance. Although scale convergence varied as a function of job title, task criticality and importance ratings were similar and presented low to moderate levels of convergence with both time-spent and difficulty-of-learning ratings. Different composites of task importance were compared. All composites and the overall judgments of importance wer moderately correlated with each other and showed similar levels of interrater agreement. Several conclusions regarding the choice of scales and the use of composites in task analysis are drawn

Teaching First-Aid Skills to Students with Moderate Handicaps in Small Group Instruction.

Abstract: The ability to apply first aid to simple injuries is a useful skill that has received little research attention for students with disabilities. In this investigation, 4 students with moderate disabilities were taught to apply first aid to three simulated "injuries": (a) a minor cut, (b) a burn, and (c) an insect bite. First-aid skills were task analyzed and taught as backward chains in a small group instructional arrangement. A multiple probe design was used to evaluate the effectiveness of a treatment package consisting of an orientation lecture and a 5-second constant time delay procedure. The results indicated that all students performed the skills only after training. In addition, following instruction, students were able to apply first-aid skills to a nonhandicapped peer. Maintenance data were collected from 1 to 18 weeks posttraining. These data indicated mixed results, with some students performing at criterion levels on the insect bite task, while on the cut and burn tasks, the students needed assistance to complete them. Social validation data indicated a high degree of satisfaction with the instructional program. The limitations of the present investigation are discussed, and directions for future research are provided. Language: en

Analysis of Task Systems in Elementary Physical Education Classes

Abstract: The purpose of this study was to describe and analyze task systems in elementary physical education classes. Two elementary physical education specialists were observed during 34 classes. Systematic observation strategies were used to describe and analyze classroom events. Data supported the existence of managerial and instructional task systems along with an informal social task system. Students complied with managerial tasks; modifications were not evident. Students’ responses to instruction were either (a) on the stated task with success or little or no success, (b) upward or downward task modifications, or (c) off-task. Primarily, students stayed on-task whether they were successful or not. Relationships among tasks within lessons indicated that the teachers used a pattern of informing, extending, and applying tasks. A less formal accountability system was evident as children were not involved in the formal exchange of performance for grades. Managerial, instructional, and social task systems did not ...

Adept-a task based design environment

Abstract: Modern user interface development environments are based on fast prototyping which as a methodology does not incorporate any theory or design principles. Adept (advanced design environment for prototyping with tasks) incorporates a theory of modelling users and user task knowledge known as task knowledge structures and extends it to a theoretical framework for modelling user, task and interface characteristics. The paper introduces the underlying framework, and discusses how this can be used to support task based user interface design. >

Teaching chained skills in a non-school setting using a divided half instructional format

Abstract: This investigation evaluated the use of dyadic instructional arrangements in teaching chained skills to four students with moderate mental retardation. Each instructional dyad consisted of two students. Each of the three cooking skills was divided into two equal parts, and each student in a dyad received direct instruction on one part of the task analysis during each instructional session. During the following session, the two parts were reversed and a student received instruction on the second part. A constant time delay procedure was used to teach the targeted skills in an off-campus setting. A multiple probe design across skills and replicated across students evaluated the effectiveness of the instructional procedure and teaching arrangement. Results indicate that each of the four students learned the three cooking skills. Implications for future research are discussed.

The art of search: a study of art directors

Abstract: We formulated a model of visual search by conducting a work flow study and task analysis of art directors as they searched for images to use in an advertisement. The analysis revealed the presence of artistic and image concepts, flexible structures which guide the search and are molded by them. Analysis results were used to build a model-based interface for visual search. Results from presenting the interface to users indicate that the interface has the potential to make significant contributions to the visual search task, both in time savings and as an aid to the creative process.

The Blocks Task: Comparative Analyses of the Task With Other Proportion Tasks and Qualitative Reasoning Skills of Seventh-Grade Children in Solving the Task

Abstract: A nonnumeric task called the blocks task was developed to investigate children's understanding of the proportion concept. The first part of the article discusses this task through two cognitive task analyses: The first task analysis establishes an isomorphism between the blocks task and several real-world problem types; the second task compares and contrasts the blocks task with three other proportion-concept tasks-rate and mixture tasks, the balance scale task, and the fullness task. The second part of the article reports a study of three aspects of adolescents' solution of the blocks task: (a) the basic problem representation that the children constructed in response to the task presentation and the corresponding solution strategy they used, (b) relations between the problem representations and the strategies, and (c) differences among high-, middle-, and low-ability children in terms of problem representation and solution strategy. The investigation resulted in the identification of three categories of problem representations and three categories of solution strategies. A hierarchy of sophistication was evident among the problem representations and among the solution strategies, and a strong relation was observed between

Automatic acquisition of task theories for robotic manipulation

Abstract: A task theory is a collection of models that a robot uses to predict the effects of its actions. This thesis addresses how a robot can build a task theory from observed action effects, thus bypassing the usual human-programming method of defining "what actions do", and making robots considerably easier to train. The question that this thesis addresses is: "What are sufficient conditions whereby a robotic manipulation system can learn action models that allow automated planning and successful execution of manipulation strategies?" This thesis, by presenting an implemented learning robot system, shows that acquiring action models can be automated, and further shows that the required software mechanisms are simple and few. The important characteristics of the learning agent and its environment are: (1) the complexity of the task, (2) the sensory and effectory abilities of the agent, (3) the learning mechanism, (4) the planning mechanism, (5) the experimentation method, and (6) the prior knowledge of the task possessed by the agent. Sufficient conditions for success are demonstrated with empirical results in three manipulation tasks: parallel-jaw grasping, the peg-in-hole problem, and the tray-tilting problem. The successful learning robots for these tasks generate task theories consisting of a set of funnels. Each funnel is a kind of operator that maps a region of the task state-action space to a region of the state space. Funnels can be acquired for continuous tasks using very little prior knowledge of the task, but the learning mechanism must be robust in the face of noise and non-determinism. A simple search-based planner suffices for generating manipulation plans, although this planner must reason about the reliabilities associated with each funnel. After demonstrating sufficient conditions for successful acquisition of task theories, the thesis considers the necessity of the characteristics of the implemented learning robots. In addition to sensing, effecting, planning, and learning, the thesis develops requirements on the prior knowledge that must be possessed by the learning robot. Task-specific prior knowledge can be very weak, but for some complex tasks, prior knowledge is required to achieve acceptable convergence times for the learned task theory.

Prevention of low back pain: basic ergonomics in the workplace and the clinic.

Abstract: Redesigning the job is a strategy for preventing low back injuries at work or for accommodating injured employees who return to work. An evaluation of the physical job demands is necessary in either strategy. Several job demands are associated with low back pain and injury--heavy physical work, static or postural effort, dynamic work-load and exposure to wholebody vibration. Traditional work measurement studies emphasize a rigorous task analysis. By adding biomechanical, physiological and psychophysical measurements, a comprehensive evaluation is possible. There is no standard scheme for a workplace evaluation. The method depends on the end use of the analysis. Job evaluation for workplace design requires an emphasis on equipment and work conditions; evaluation for placement of injured employees should emphasize the operational demands of the tasks. Few studies considered the multifactorial aetiology of low back pain. Most studies that measured the magnitude of biomechanical, physiological and psychophysical stresses attempted to define peak work-loads. The attempt to evaluate the effects of subacute cumulative traumas is only in the beginning. Most ergonomic intervention programmes modify the loads, the design of objects handled, lifting techniques, workplace layout and task design. The effectiveness of these interventions in controlling medical costs or morbidity has not been clearly demonstrated. Consequently, occupational risk factors may be more important for evaluating disability. Job familiarity is the key to effective medical management. Ergonomic analysis procedures may be useful within rehabilitation settings that also provide placement services. The reason is that they facilitate communication between all elements involved in the rehabilitation process. Proper communication procedures are also crucial in implementing ergonomic interventions in the workplace. A health care provider should be part of a task force that oversees these interventions. Future effort should be directed to finding a method that health care practitioners could be competent to carry out effectively in a clinical setting. Expert systems offer promising results in disseminating ergonomic knowledge in primary and secondary health care facilities.

Expertise in Air Traffic Control (ATC): What is it, and how Can we Train for It?:

Abstract: The Federal Aviation Administration has embarked on a major curriculum redesign effort to improve the training efficiency of en route air traffic controllers. Included in this effort was a comprehensive cognitive task analysis conducted in several phases, spanning several years. Eight different types of data collection and analysis procedures were used, resulting in an integrated model of controller expertise. This paper provides a description of controller expertise, and describes the training program under development. This is one of the first examples of cognitive task analysis being applied to study expertise in complex cognitive tasks performed in time-constrained, multi-tasking environments.

Dynamic Assessment of Proficiency for Solving Procedural Knowledge Tasks

Abstract: Computer-coached practice environments can serve two purposes: to instruct and to assess. Sherlock I is a computer-coached practice environment for teaching avionics troubleshooting skills. Instruction is based on the dynamic assessment of the learner in the context of a troubleshooting problem. A cognitive task analysis of troubleshooting proficiency was used to develop Sherlock's instructional and assessment goals. As a learner works through a problem, Sherlock assesses the quality of his or her decisions and uses that information to provide the level of hint explicitness necessary at particular decision points in the problem. Specific competency building is situated within the troubleshooting context and is sharpened to the extent that satisfies each individual's needs. When a learning impasse is reached, Sherlock generates the appropriate level of feedback to the trainee based on his or her prior performance. Sherlock's hinting structure challenges trainees with learning opportunities that would be ju...

Analysis of Operational Errors and Workload in Air Traffic Control

Abstract: The Federal Aviation Administration has embarked on a major curriculum redesign effort to improve the training of en route air traffic controllers. Included in this effort was a cognitive task analysis. One component of the task analysis was an analysis of operational errors, to obtain insights into cognitive-perceptual factors contributing to controller decisionmaking error. The data suggest that a failure to maintain situation awareness is the primary cause of controller error. These results highlight the importance of the controller task “maintain situation awareness”, and are consistent with the findings of the other analyses. An approach for training situation awareness skills is presented in relation to models of expertise developed from other analyses: an expert mental model of air traffic control, and a task decomposition listing thirteen primary controller tasks. The findings and training paridigm have implications for training other complex high-performance tasks performed in a real-time, multi-...

A generic task model for instruction

Abstract: This chapter treats instruction as a generic knowledge-based task. In this view, the domain knowledge about the instructional process will be separated from the knowledge about the domain to be taught. The chapter presents an architecture for capturing this instructional knowledge, based on generic instructional tasks, generic instructional methods, and generic instructional primitives. The instructional process is generated by instantiating those entities in a given context or teaching situation. The instructional tasks embody the tasks to be realized by an instructor in an instructional process. They are defined in terms of a description of the contexts in which they can be instantiated, and a set of alternative methods that can be used for their realization. An instructional method is a knowledge-based representation of a method or procedure that can be used for executing a task. It contains conditions to determine when a method is to be preferred, or whether a method has succeeded in realizing a task. Finally, the instructional primitives are the primitive objects that are manipulated by the methods during the instructional process.

Promoting stimulus control with textual prompts and performance feedback for persons with mild disabilities.

Abstract: We assessed whether written task analyses would serve as textual prompts for performing functional tasks by persons with mild disabilities. Several variables that could influence the effectiveness of textual prompts to promote stimulus control were examined across four groups. A consistent finding was that written specific task analyses combined with end-of-trial performance feedback were effective for promoting the acquisition and generalization of several tasks. Performance transferred immediately to natural discriminative stimuli when the written task analyses and feedback were withdrawn for most tasks and participants. For 2 participants, transfer of stimulus control was accomplished by prompt fading, using individualized written task analyses either with or without performance feedback (Group 1). When feedback was not provided, the effectiveness of written specific task analyses was inconsistent across groups. In contrast to the controlling effects of written specific task analyses, written generic task analyses, which specified only major task outcomes, when combined with performance feedback (Group 1) did not control responding. Overall, this research demonstrated the effectiveness of written specific task analyses and performance feedback to promote stimulus control for persons with mild disabilities.

A Method for Cognitive Task Analysis

Abstract: : A method for cognitive task analysis is described based on the notion of 'generic tasks'. The method distinguishes three layers of analysis. At the first layer, the task structure, top-level goals of a certain task are identified that have to be fulfilled during task-execution. This task structure may also be viewed as the global strategy to carry out the task. At the second layer of analysis, the local strategies (procedures) are identified by means of which values are obtained for goals in the task structure. The third layer of analysis consists of a description of the underlying domain knowledge. After a general discussion of the potentialities of the task model in predicting and diagnosing human cognitive behaviour, implications of the model for applied areas such as the development of knowledge-based systems and training, are discussed. Problem solving, Cognitive Task Analysis, Knowledge, Strategies.

A Study of Task Systems and Accountability in an Elite Junior Sports Setting

Abstract: The concept of academic work has been developed as a means of examining the curriculum used in classrooms. Tousignant’s study of secondary school physical education classes was the first to apply this concept to teaching physical education. This paper reports on a study that examined the program in action in a junior elite-sport setting (a state-level volleyball squad). The conceptualization of instructional, managerial, and transitional task systems developed in physical education classes was found to be relevant in this setting. In addition, a further task system, the match-play task system, was identified. A subset of the instructional task system identified as role-specific instructional tasks also emerged. The paper concludes that similar task systems operate in physical education and coaching and that the concept of accountability is important in understanding both teaching and coaching processes.